1
SEEING THE INVISIBLE
There is nothing more visible than what is hidden.
Confucius
Introducing the highlights of Chinese wisdom: the classics of [1] Confucianism, about
ethics and education, society and government, self-cultivation and secular spirituality, [2]
Daoism, about nature mysticism and meditation, arts and sciences, medicine and health
care, and [3] Buddhism, the only foreign ideology that inspired China and produced an age
of enlightenment that offers a solution for the Western spiritual impasse.
What made the Chinese people persistently creative, what inspired them to build the most
stable culture and polity known to history?
David Nivison, Arthur Wright
Philosophical discussion in ancient China presents in a fully developed form the ideas
which are explored considerably later in the West.
Hyun Hochsmann, Yang Guorong, Zhuangzi, xix
It becomes apparent, as Chinese studies progress, that in numerous instances ancient
China shows in a complete and intelligible form what in the West is known to us only
through examples that are scattered, fragmentary and obscure.
Arthur Waley, The Way and Its Power, 12
Ancient China produced some of the greatest wisdom in human history.
Jonathan Haidt
The Western Impasse
Modern society is at the height of human civilization, at least for its material development,
but what about its spiritual competence? Beliefs and opinions about the most important
issues – the meaning of life and the universe – are divided and in conflict. Many believe
that God created the world and us personally, while others assume that life evolved from
unpredictable particles, that we are mutant apes. Is there no other choice than between two
incompatible extremes, either blind faith in supernatural revelations of the past, or
agnosticism based on the findings of modern science?
What are the answers – not beliefs or opinions – to questions like: Where do I come from,
and where do I go? If I am not a divine creation, could I be the outcome of biological
randomness, such as the sex of parents, natural evolution of animals, appearance of life on
this planet, or am I something more substantial and spiritual than the result of physical
circumstances? Born-to-die on a little planet circling a burning star in an endless universe,
is this all there is to being human?
2
Believers struggle with the facts of suffering and inequality: why did an almighty, allloving, all-knowing God not do a better job; why disease and mental disorder, hunger and
poverty, stupidity and misery, if He enjoys unlimited power and wisdom, glory and bliss in
heaven? For agnostics, the meaning of life is nothing to worry about, because there is
none. In both cases, we don’t seem to be responsible for who and what we are.
Both religious faith and natural science, creationism and evolutionism, rely on other
sources than the human mind, on holy scriptures and on instruments, as if the mind with its
unique capacity for consciousness would be unable to understand what being human is all
about. The result is division and antagonism: atheism against monotheism, skepticism
against dogmatism, materialism against spiritualism, liberalism against conservatism.
After more than two millennia of thought and debate, of research and development,
mankind is still groping in the dark, from origin to destiny –
much like the blind men who could not agree on how an elephant looks like, after feeling
its trunk, ears, legs, or tusks (Buddha). How can one be sure – since contradictions are
proof of error?
Eastern Wisdom for the West
There is only one reality, or it is not real;
there can only be one truth, or it is not true.
Zen saying
The Greek founders of Western civilization compared the human condition to life in a
cave, where people are looking at shadows on a wall, unable to turn around and see the
light. Some modern philosophers think that their ideas are still nothing more than
footnotes to Plato.1 His teacher Socrates, “the wisest man in the West”, died in prison on
charges of corrupting the youth and not believing in the traditional gods. The true reason
for his death was ignorance, in his view:
The ignorant do not seek after wisdom. For herein is the evil of ignorance, that he who is
neither good nor wise is nevertheless satisfied with himself: he has no desire for that of
which he feels no want. (Symposium)
Since ancient times the consensus has been, in both East and West, that human nature is
originally indifferent, if not evil. Religions have therefore offered salvation, and
philosophies education, to undo man’s mistakes and solve his problems. According to one
of the first teachers in history, Confucius in China (551–479 BC), the task of education is
“learning to be human.” The earliest professional thinkers in Greece defined their
discipline as philo-sophy or love-of-wisdom, implying that their experience of truth is not
only possible but also most satisfying.
The highest degree of learning is, in fact, spiritual, not in the sense of believing but of
realizing the meaning of life and the universe; not just thinking what is right but also living
correctly, in accordance with the right principles and values. The knowledge of what is
1
A.N.Whitehead, Process and Reality, 39
3
right and wrong is not just a personal or religious affair; its consequences include the whole
of reality.
With few exceptions… the twentieth-century Western philosopher stands several steps
removed from the ancient understanding of metaphysics, so that on the whole he does not
realize exactly what, several centuries ago, he truly did lose. Long accustomed now to
viewing the pursuit of knowledge solely in terms either of logical abstraction or empirical
objectivity or some combination of both, most Western philosophers seem no longer
familiar even with the essential nature of metaphysical thought.2
The foremost advocate of metaphysical truth has traditionally been religion. Its authority
was based on sacred scriptures and church teachings, not on actual observation and
verification. Believers were therefore lead to assume views and opinions that were not
always in accordance with reality and disproven by science.
Such unsubstantiated beliefs are still current today. Most believers declare, without
blushing, that after this lifetime they will go to heaven to “meet their Maker” and join their
beloved ones, for eternity. They assume that this world offers no solution and that one has
to die, close one’s eyes first, before seeing the light; that all men are sinners and need to be
redeemed from an “original fall” – a primordial sin committed by a legendary couple that
listened to a devil in disguise; that one cannot be saved outside the intervention of a Jewish
preacher who called himself the Son of God and died an unjust death penalty for our sake;
that there is a Creator-Lord of the Universe, who is at the same time a Trinity of divine
persons in heaven and an eternal, infinite Absolute who, moreover personally interacts with
His believers; and that one better listens to His commandments or He may punish with
eternal damnation.
Since common ethics and personal morality were based on religious traditions, they
declined when supernatural beliefs declined. The result has been widespread spiritual,
social, and cultural deterioration. Human excellence is a matter of the whole person, and it
is only natural that when morality fails, insight and wisdom, inspiration and creativity also
fail. The vital energy that generates mental clarity and proficiency is not the result of
biology and chemistry, as is the common materialistic view; gods and angels who have
much more powers and intelligence don’t need brains. The ultimate source of real
“brainpower” is spirit, and spirit has its roots in morality and virtue. From personal
experience one may know that, without leading a life of goodness, honesty, integrity, selfsacrifice, etc., one misses the lucidity to realize more than a dead-end worldview.
This lack of moral-spiritual clarity has deprived the younger generation of a meaningful
education, and has lead to a sharp rise in depression and suicide.
In a depressing new book “Lost in Transition, The Dark Side of Emerging Adulthood” [by
Christian Smith a.o.], a group of sociologists documents how people in their late teens and
early twenties have come to view moral choices as ‘just a matter of individual taste’, and
2
P.H. Reardon, Truth is not Known unless it is Loved
4
seem perplexed when asked to make judgments about behavior that earlier generations
would clearly label as wrong... From blind deference to churches and authority, our
society has swung to the other extreme, and now morality is purely ‘something that
emerges in the privacy of your own heart’. 3
No Creator, no Coincidence
Spirituality in the East offers a different perspective, not based on supernatural beliefs but
on a natural development of the mind. Its central theme is the capacity to “know and see”
and save oneself. Human nature may not be perfect but it has the power to overcome
ignorance and suffering, to gain clarity and certainty beyond death, to be in charge of one’s
destiny without the help of another agent, and to recognize a universe that stretches way
beyond religious revelations and scientific discoveries. Unbelievable as it may sound,
innumerable are those, known and unknown, who have realized the ultimate truth about
reality and became “enlightened”; they put an end to the miseries of Samsara and
established, in this mind-body, “the autonomy, purity, eternity, and bliss of Nirvana.”
It is not difficult to see that here is a radical difference between a divine Person in heaven
and the Absolute. The source and substance of reality, the “Ground of Being” can itself not
be a being: all being is relative, related to causes and conditions to come into being, limited
to being here and now and not everywhere and always, to being thus and not otherwise, to
being impermanent, with a beginning and thus an end, and restricted in all aspects, not
almighty. If God exists, the relativity of existence applies to Him as well.
That does not mean that a divine being cannot love us, hear our prayers and intervene; but
He cannot dismiss the universal laws of existence He is Himself subject to. The causality
for gods and heavens is excellent, pure, powerful energy, generated by karma (quality) that
is too good for the life-world conditions (quantity) on earth. But no being is beyond the
“whole universe,” where heavens as well as hells belong to one and the same Law of Cause
and Effect (the foundation of everything, not only science).
The ultimate source of creation is itself uncreated, and therefore eternal, infinite, empty (of
relative existence). It is only One (non-duality); any second or third would limit it, end it
where the other begins. The substance of reality is not among any existence; it does not
“exist.” Divine persons exist somewhere (in heaven), for some time (not eternal), with
some form (not infinite). The power of creation, on the other hand, is infinite or it could
not produce interminable being; it is super-intelligent and far more resourceful than what
science has discovered so far. Creation is, after all, the work of absolute Reason and Logic,
never producing something out of Order that has no reason to be and to be exactly what
and how and where it is.
Without form-space-time conditions nothing comes into being. We are embedded in a
complex, endless chain of links and causes, from parents to be born, air to breathe, climate,
food, gravity, bioelectricity to think and feel, society to interact, a planet to walk upon and
find a final resting place. All these factors happen within precise parameters; if the
3 David Brooks, The New York Times, 9/2011
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composition of air or water is not right, so ceases our organism to exist. The plain fact of
being alive testifies to an immense range of infallible accuracy, not only the laws of
physics. If exact causality applies to the whole of being, how could our little lives be the
big exception in the great universe?
The name for that creative intelligence should not be “God,” although it is tempting to
ascribe this wonderful world to a perfect, almighty super-being. That intelligence can also
not be grasped with a thinking mind, nor can it be influenced to change its course of
natural-causal-universal Justice. Gods can be implored to listen to our desires; the function
of religion is to invoke the help of higher-than-human beings, but not to manipulate the
Origin and Substance of being (why so much prayers go unheard).
To recognize and understand the existence of an Ultimate and its infallible working is the
function of wisdom. It is called “transcendental” wisdom because it not only sees the
meta-physical truth about life and the world but it also “goes beyond” and “overcomes” the
birth-death trap of worldly and heavenly existence. That Absolute has been clearly
understood for more than two and a half millennia; its nature-beyond-being has been called
Emptiness, and its function Karma.
The world exists because of karma,
all things are produced because of karma,
and all beings are bound by karma,
like a linchpin fixes a fast-moving chariot. (Buddha, Sutta Nipāta 654)
“Karma” means “act”, not the result or retribution of acts as is commonly assumed. It
applies only to conscious, deliberate conduct, to activity that expresses free will, intention
and decision:
Volition is what I call karma, for through volition one acts by body, speech or mind
(Majjhima Nikāya 36).
There is no karma, no creation of existence without a mind behind it. The quality of
existence,
from sublime happiness to cruel suffering, derives from the mind-quality of conduct.
Mind precedes all states.
Mind is chief; life is the creation of mind.
If one speaks or acts with an impure mind, suffering follows,
if with a pure mind, happiness follows, as one’s shadow. (Dhammapada 1-2)
The power of karma is so great that the world as we know it is not big enough to contain its
consequences. It is such that it generates the most brilliant future in a most glorious world.
But if we apply the mind incorrectly, it creates a life-experience we regret. From heavens
to hells, all life is the product (quantity) of the Mind’s quality; gods and heavens too are
“created by Mind-only.”
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Karma does not eliminate our free will but it is the outcome of how we deal with
responsibility. Karma does not determine us, we determine karma.
What we are today comes from our thoughts of yesterday, and our present thoughts build
our life tomorrow: our life is the creation of our mind (Dhammapada).
It is due to the thought behind it that an act is wholesome or unwholesome (Vasubandhu).
To discover the heart of all matter, to understand the Mind of Creation, has been the
occupation of spirituality in the East. Since the foundation of reality is also the foundation
of our mind, the Ground of Being also the ground of our being, the Absolute is perfectly
intelligible. That is why “enlightenment” – mind understanding Mind -- is possible.
Enlightenment means “perfect and complete understanding” (budh in Sanskrit). It does not
rely on intellectual application (thoughts know nothing but themselves) or on an infusion
from above (“grace”) but on a direct, unmediated (without thought) perception of ultimate
reality, also called “awakening.” The way to realize it has been spelled out in a vast
amount of literature, not only in the words of the Buddha but also in the testimonials of the
masters who successfully followed in his footsteps.4
The experience of ultimate reality is not like any other perception, because nothing is
perceived.
When you are in what is not time, not space, not form, not motion and not thought,
and see what you perceive when nothing is perceived, then you see the original Mind.5
The main aspect of enlightenment is transcendental wisdom, “omniscience”, knowing and
seeing that overcomes the human predicament and “solves life and death.” Its “knowledge
is power” indeed, and absolute knowledge imparts absolute power. Its wisdom penetrates
to the source and substance of being, and is therefore in control of being, master of one’s
destiny. Although this realization is very rare, and still unknown in the West, it is within
everyone’s reach.6
The basic feature of life in Samsara is to be born-to-die, to be transient and relative, related
and dependent on “other” causes and conditions to exist – called “not self” in Buddhism.
Without parents or food, a suitable environment or air to breathe, one would not exist. And
while alive, one can only be such and so and not otherwise, only here and not elsewhere, and
only for so much time.
These form-space-time restrictions are the hallmarks of all existence, including heavens and
gods -- because they exist. Religions in general are not denied but respected, because they
4
The Buddhist canon -- known as the Tripitaka, the Three Baskets of sutras or Buddha’s teachings, the
Vinaya rules for discipline, and the later commentaries -- comprises more than fifty volumes in the Chinese
Da Zang Jing (Taisho).
5
Zen saying
6
Upon his enlightenment the Buddha exclaimed, “Amazing, amazing! Everyone has the same potential.”
7
promote morality and virtue, and offer an outlook that transcends life-death in this world. But
they are shown to be incomplete, revealing only part of the universal reality, and falling short
of what the human mind is actually capable of. Religions are like paths, different approaches
leading up the spiritual mountain, but they take us only halfway, without revealing the top,
where the view is one and the same for all.
The foundation of the spiritual path that leads to enlightenment is threefold. It starts with
the basic requirements that are also common to religion: moral conduct, virtue, and
mindfulness (as in prayer and contemplation). [1] Virtuous conduct – not only avoiding all
evil but also doing good –
builds up over the course of many lives the potential to develop [2] pure concentration
power. This is the capacity to abide in unmoving, unwavering focus, to exercise clear and
silent awareness without being distracted by any thoughts or feelings. As one may try, real
concentration power is quite beyond our capacity; it takes more than one lifetime of
meditation practice. But the result is mental power way beyond what is considered
possible; the human mind is, in fact, capable of remembering former lives, of seeing karma
at work not only in one’s own rebirths but in other beings as well, in this and in other
worlds. This concentration power (only) enables the mind to realize [3] the wisdom or
know-how of liberation and its many talents and capacities.
Pure concentration power is called samadhi. It develops in four distinct stages, called
dhyana (chan in Chinese, pronounced as zen in Japanese.7) Higher/purer levels of
consciousness reveal higher/purer levels of reality. The four dhyana-concentrations reveal
the four higher levels of heaven in the Pure Form World. Religion is based on the
discovery of the first, lowest level of what seems like an infinite world of light and delight,
glory and bliss. This is a not a matter of faith or supernatural revelation but of natural,
actual concentration, clarification, and expansion of consciousness. The reason why
religions have to resort to blind faith and supernatural grace to “experience something of
heaven” is not because heaven is above and beyond human existence but because the
human mind usually operates beneath and below its capacity.
Before reaching dhyana-samadhi, the mind has to stop flowing with thoughts and feelings
(samatha), so that real insight (vipassana) can arise. Contrary to current beliefs and
practices, there is no vipassana without samatha first; and no enlightenment without
samadhi first.
A central message of Eastern spirituality, and of karma in particular, is the promise of
certainty and joy. When following every Buddha’s advice – “avoid evil, do good, and
purify the mind” – the future can only produce better, happier, healthier, wealthier, longer,
and wiser life. On the other hand, if people knew more about karma and its consequences,
the world would change overnight. It would not only know how to avoid misfortune and
suffering but establish a world-order where the human race would make a giant leap in all
respects, from ideal genetics to ideal climate to an ideal civilization, where disease and
poverty, conflict and war, superstition and confusion would melt into a Great Harmony
World (da-tong shijie in Chinese).
7
Meditation skill gave the name to the Zen school of Buddhism; it is not yet enlightenment.
8
Ancient Wisdom, Modern Ignorance
The “Buddhist Conquest of China”8 started in the first century and culminated in the
“Golden Age of Zen” during the Tang period (618-907). This period of exceptional
spiritual achievement invites us to investigate why and how China’s traditional thought,
worldview, and way of life, facilitated the realization of (real) enlightenment, in the course
of a few centuries, and on a fairly common scale.
Around the middle of the first millennium B.C.E. “the spiritual foundations of humanity
were laid simultaneously and independently in Ancient Greece, the Middle East, India, and
China ... the foundations upon which humanity still subsists today.”9 India offered the
most developed philosophical and religious theories which prepared the way for the
Buddha in the 6th century B.C.E.10 In Greece, Pythagoras lived around the same time (582500) and traveled East to learn from Egyptian wisdom and Persian religion, apparently
based on some dhyana-experience, since he knew “the music of the spheres” (something
modern man cannot even imagine).
China experienced a similar illumination during that period, but independently from the
rest of the world. The philosopher Zhuangzi (Chuang-tzu) heard a similar “cosmic
symphony”:
Perhaps you only know the music of Man, and not that of the Earth. Or even if you have
heard the music of the Earth, you have not heard the music of Heaven. 11
From antiquity to this day masters of meditation actually hear, literally and not literarily,
the “music of Heaven”. It can be heard in remote areas and on mountains where the
environment is clean, but only with a pure and energized hearing faculty. It is unusually
beautiful, not to be compared with any music, melody, or harmony on earth, they say.
Also little known in the West, where all things “made in China” suggest that the Middle
Kingdom (Zhong-guo) is a newly emerging superpower, China is not a newcomer on the
world scene but has been the most advanced civilization for much of known history. Long
before Europe developed science, it was a frontrunner in all fields.
“Many of the world’s greatest inventions have their foundation in ancient China: the
decimal system, printing, paper money, the compass, the wheelbarrow, the crossbow, the
science of immunology, porcelain, matches, the rudder, the umbrella, brandy and whiskey,
the mechanical clock, the game of chess and playing cards ... Undisputed masters of
invention and discovery for 3,000 years, the ancient Chinese were the first to discover the
solar wind and the circulation of the blood and even to isolate sex hormones. From the
8
Title of a book by E. Zurcher
Karl Jaspers, The Way to Wisdom, (Yale University Press, 2003), 98
10
according to recent discoveries that put him a century earlier than previously thought.
11
Zhuangzi, Section II; Burton Watson, Chuang Tzu, Basic Writings (New York: Columbia Univ. Press,
1996), 32
9
9
suspension bridge and the seismograph to deep drilling for natural gas, the iron plough, and
the parachute, ancient China’s contributions in the fields of engineering, medicine,
technology, mathematics, science, transportation, warfare, and music helped inspire the
European agricultural and industrial revolutions.”12
Also “worth noting is that from the Han to the Ming period [roughly 1500 years], the
Chinese knew a greater area of the world than the West did, since their geographical
knowledge extended from Japan to the shores of the Mediterranean.”13 Above all, “the
genius of China” has also been ahead in the sphere of moral-spiritual intelligence. During
the period of “hundred philosophers,” from 551 to 233 B.C.E., it produced Confucius (551479) and Laozi (Lao-tzu, about 20 years his senior, according to Chinese tradition). They
were the founding fathers of the two schools of thought that molded the mindset of China
and the rest of East Asia, to this day.
Confucius
Confucianism is the ideology that guided China in all matters of human conduct, from
personal morality, family values and social interaction, to education and government.
Confucius’ main concern was politics, because he “lived in a period of historical transition,
an age of acute cultural crisis. In one fundamental respect, there was a certain similarity
between his time and ours: he was witnessing the collapse of a civilization ... and believed
that Heaven had chosen him to ... restore the world order on a new ethical basis, and
salvage the entire civilization.”14
His life long Confucius was in search of a ruler (China consisted of many autonomous
states, somewhat comparable to Europe) who would give him a chance to apply his model
government. But “all his efforts were in vain. The problem was not that he was politically
ineffectual or impractical – on the contrary. The elite of his disciples had superior
competences and talents, and they formed around him a sort of shadow cabinet ... a
formidable challenge to the established authorities ... The tragic reality of Confucius as
failed politician was [later] replaced by the glorious myth of Confucius the Supreme
Teacher.”15
The Confucian classics that became the required texts for all Chinese learning, from
primary education to civil service examinations, are The Four Books, namely The Analects
(Lun yu), Mencius, The Great Learning (Da xue), and The Mean (Zhong yong). Only the
Lun Yu is believed to be written by Confucius himself, or at least by a close disciple (like
Socrates, Jesus, and Buddha, he wrote nothing himself).
The first clue to China’s early and lasting success is a natural, humanistic morality. Unlike
Western religion, where human nature is assumed to be defiled by a (non-existing)
12
13
14
15
Robert Temple, The Genius of China, 2007, Inner Traditions, Rochester, Vermont.
See the many volumes on Science and Civilisation in China by Joseph Needham
Jacques Gernet, China and The Christian Impact, (Cambridge University Press, 1985), 270
Simon Leys, The Analects of Confucius, xxiii-xxiv
Leys, ibid.
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ancestor’s “original sin” and in need of a supernatural salvation, Confucianism, Daoism,
and Buddhism postulate the inherent goodness of human nature. One only needs to follow
one’s heart, in all sincerity, to recover one’s original potential for virtue and power. Even
political power was based on the karma-power of an individual with exceptional virtue, not
on a popular vote.
While Confucius no more than implied that human nature is good, Mencius declared
definitely that it is originally good. Since man is originally good, it logically follows (1)
that he possesses an innate knowledge of the good and an “innate ability” to do good; (2)
that if one “develops his mind to the utmost,” he can “serve Heaven” and “fulfill his
destiny”; (3) that evil is not inborn but due to man’s own failures and his inability to avoid
evil external influences; (4) that serious efforts must be made to recover one’s original
nature; and (5) that the goal of learning is none other than to “seek for the lost mind.” “His
general theory of the goodness of human nature exercised a tremendous influence on the
whole movement of Confucianism in the last millennium... As moral power is inherent in
everyone’s nature, therefore every individual is “complete in himself”; every individual
can become a sage, and everyone is equal to everyone else... People have the right to
revolt. This idea of revolution... made him the greatest advocate of political democracy in
Chinese history.”16
This early insight into human nature was a powerful factor in China’s development, for its
scientific and technological as well as spiritual development. Above all, it prepared the
way for the realization of man’s ultimate capacity, enlightenment. Since the human mind
is basically of the same substance (“non-duality”) as the Substance of Being, nothing really
stands in the Way for understanding “being.”
Mencius has still another message for modern society, where “the economy” or material
interests have quietly overtaken all other concerns. When asked by a ruler about his views
on policies and government, “he vigorously opposed righteousness to utility, advantages,
and profit…
Mencius replied; “Why must Your Majesty use the term profit? What I have to offer are
nothing but humanity and righteousness. If you ask what is profitable to your country, if the
officers and the common people ask what is profitable to themselves, then they will try to
snatch the profit from one another and the country will crumble.”17
In classical Chinese philosophy, as well as in Buddhism, the common priorities of society
are turned upside down. To put material gain above human-universal values and principles
is “like putting the cart before the horse” (Zen saying); lack of insight and wisdom fails to
recognize the real order of things: health and wealth and harmony are the result of ethics.
Only when the true purpose of being human is recognized and honored, putting
righteousness and goodness above profit and power, does nature provide excellent
opportunities. The fundamental order of creation is not a material but a spiritual one.
Indeed, how could dumb matter, unpredictable particles provide intelligence and
16
17
Wing-Tsit Chan, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, (Princeton University Press, 1963), 50
ibid, 60
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happiness? Quantities, the physical reality of genes and the environment, respond to the
spiritual quality of humanity. The whole world of experience, from heaven to hell and all
welfare and adversity in between, is the outcome of one’s own acting according to
universal-natural law or not.
The Confucian classic The Mean opens as follows:
What Heaven has endowed is called human nature.
To follow our nature is called the Way (Dao).
Cultivating the Way is called education.
The Way cannot be departed from for a moment.
If it were possible to depart from it, it would not be the Way.
Therefore the noble person is cautious and watchful about what is unseen and fearful and
apprehensive about what is unheard.
There is nothing more visible than what is hidden and nothing more apparent than what is
subtle. Therefore the noble person is watchful over himself while alone.
Human nature is, as everything else, subject to the exact (scientific) laws of nature. Human
life is intrinsically part of the Way of Life. To act immorally is bad not because of any
divine ruling but because it is un-natural; it is therefore counter-productive, since it
counteracts and defies the cause and purpose of one’s existence – to one’s ruin. To be
human means to be moral and virtuous; to behave – think, speak, act – correctly means to
be in accordance with the Way of Nature; and only if practiced at all times and
circumstances, even if there is nobody around, can human nature grow close to the Way.
To discern and realize Dao is nothing other than recognizing the Ground of Being we stand
upon. If departed from, one simply stops being “human”. To be of “nobility” (junzi,
gentleman) is a matter of actively being good, not of birth or of having property or status.
In ancient China there was a live awareness of the creative force that is behind life, and
therefore unseen. Dao is a name for “That” what makes us exist, the Origin and constant
Source of Being. But the reason for being as we are, with shortcomings and all, is not the
creation of Dao; we are responsible for what we are – healthy, intelligent, successful, or
not. “That” force is not a separate, super-natural agent in heaven, nor is it the blind force
of coincidence (evolution, genes). Neither God nor physics is responsible, but we are in
charge of our life experience. Long before the advent of the Buddha’s enlightenment
teachings, who called this universal force karma, it was already known as the
“quintessence” in Chinese wisdom.
Remark:
First, this shows clearly that the origin of the Way is traced to Heaven and is
unchangeable, while its concrete substance is complete in ourselves and may not be
departed from. Next, it speaks of the essentials of preserving, nourishing, and examining
the mind. The author’s hope was that the student should return to search within himself to
find these truths, so that he might remove his selfish desires aroused by external
12
temptations, and realize in full measure the goodness which is natural to him. This is ...
the quintessence of the whole work.18
This remark is by Zhu Xi, the most influential philosopher who introduced the Four Books
as required texts in the 12th century, more than a millennium after they were written. His
philosophy was part of a cultural renaissance, called neo-Confucianism, after Chinese
thought had undergone the influence of Buddhism.
The other discipline that prepared the Chinese mind for the Buddhist enlightenment agenda
was Daoism. Even before Confucius, a fundamental idea in China’s original philosophy
that inspired its early discoveries and inventions, was the fact of universal polarity, called
Yin and Yang. Modern science confirms that the formation of all energy and matter
depends on the complementarity of positive and negative; the information age builds on the
binary couple of 1- 0. However, all phenomena rely on that complementarity.
There is no life without male and female. There is no birth without death; the outcome of
all creation is extinction; decay is the fate of all production, disappearance the conclusion
of all appearance. Light and dark, night and day, action and rest are the cycles of perpetual
flux. Nothing ever stands still but all is changing and turning, round and round, up and
down, in a universe that is itself moving from expansion to contraction and to expansion
again, and again.
Heaven and hell are part of the Circle of existence. Transient and not eternal, they are real
but only temporary happy and unhappy results of good and evil, right and wrong,
wholesome and unwholesome conduct. Those in heaven and hell are there because of very
excellent and very bad behavior as a human, and they all come back one day, to go up and
down again and again. The Wheel of Being keeps turning without end and “without visible
beginning” (Buddha), not just one “big bang”, and without anyone or anything to set it in
motion, to stop, or to alter it.
Other ancient Daoist observations are the universal facts of transience and causality. After
every beginning comes an end, and there is nothing without a beginning. Growth and
decline, success and failure, boom and bust are the natural sequence of every history, from
a lifetime to a civilization to a cosmic eon. Everything has its downside, and when
something develops to its extreme, it turns into its opposite. Nothing is created from
nothing; everything depends on what came before it; what is not caused to be does not
exist; every moment follows from the previous, every step is the result of all former steps;
B follows A and there is no D without C. There is nothing but the sequence of cause and
effect, nothing but exact results. There is “no-self” without “other.”
When Buddhism arrived from India in China, the intelligentsia had already been molded by
both Confucianism and Daoism, in the public as well as the private sphere. After
Buddhism was introduced, through vast translation projects, adepts started practicing
meditation to the extent of acquiring samadhi-powers of concentration. They naturally
18
The Mean, translated by Wing Tsit-Chan, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, (Princeton University
Press), 98
13
acquired miraculous powers; their extraordinary feats convinced masses of people and
raised the popularity of Buddhism in general.
The lesson is that, since it took such preparation in China to reach enlightenment, the West
too has to be prepared before it will understand, practice, and realize a similar spiritual
power. And only then will the Buddhist themes of karma and reincarnation, no-self and
emptiness become common wisdom, and initiate a spiritual revolution to solve the
contradictions and conflicts of our time.19 Maybe this was also the vision of the prophet
who predicted that: “Knowledge and Wisdom shall be the Stability of Thy Times” (Isaiah
33:6, inscription on the Rockefeller building in New York). The in-stability of our times is
indeed caused by different, opposing blind faiths.
To Know Karma
Somewhere, something incredible is waiting to be known.
Blaise Pascal
The first step toward “seeing things as they really are” (the purpose of all philosophy, not
only Buddhism), is to realize that the whole of reality, not just material science, is a matter
of causality. Whatever exists is caused to be just what it is; there is nothing that is not the
result of other and former causes and conditions. Applied to human life, this law of
causality, called Karma, is the reason for being born and for having this and no other kind
of life. Karma is not some inscrutable fate thrown over us but quite the opposite; it is the
ultimate affirmation of self-responsibility and autonomy. We are what we are because of
what we have made of ourselves, nothing but the result of former conduct, thinking and
acting, the inescapable, unmistakable outcome of the way we used our freedom during
former lives. “Nothing comes from nothing” applies to our being too.
The good news is that suffering and ignorance are only transient and that happiness and
wisdom will be the final outcome of being human. Whatever we suffer is the result of
ignoring what is right and doing what is wrong. But when, in the long term, all bad karma
will be expiated, only a perfectly bright future should be left. There is therefore nothing to
worry about, but only to regret that we did not earlier come to the conclusion “not to
commit the same mistake again” (Buddhist definition of repentance). The is only reason
for invincible optimism, for the certainty, not just hope, that happiness, wisdom, power,
and goodness are the inalienable features of our basic nature. Karma is like a super
guardian angel, a universal Judge who never fails to warn us, and to set us straight on the
Way.
Modern man believes in scientific logic, in cause and effect for everything except the
course of his own life. Karma is the creative force of Nature that directs the course of
history, both personal and global. There is no specific formation of energy in space-time
without specific information. There is no karma without our free willing, knowing,
intention, and consent.
19
For a complete introduction to Buddhism, see my The Mind Experiment: On the Universal Relevance of
Buddhist Theory and Practice
14
The body and the environment as a whole, including all worlds and spheres in a Triple (not
just material) Universe, is generated by spirit, by knowledge and understanding. Spiritual
quality, right and wrong, good and evil come before all quantity (biology, astrology,
economy, cosmology). The mind-in-action, not blind faith in heaven or in mindless
particles (as in religion and science), explains every course of life, from birth to death to
rebirth.
The Wonder of Being, still way beyond the grasp of science, is not the work of random
evolution. Karma is the guarantee that life makes sense, and that there is ultimate justice.
Without it there is little or nothing to understand, especially not life’s variety and
inequality, from divinity in heaven to bestiality on earth to terrorism in hell. Trying to
erase the differences among people – as modern ideologies and policies do -- denies the
truth of universal justice, the rule of infallible law and order, the logic of being, the power
of liberty and the consequences of action. This kind of ignorance is, in fact, the primal
cause for being born (and dying) beyond our knowledge and control. Nobody knows where
we come from and where we go (believing is not knowing). Enlightenment simply means
to stop guessing, imagining, hoping, believing (what is not there), thus darkening the light
that is always there.
An important aspect of the Eastern worldview is the fundamental unity of all phenomena.
There is no reality-split between natural and supernatural, sacred and secular, between the
Spirit (“God”) and the substance of the soul (as confirmed by all mystics or “God-seers”).
That means that the basic tenets of enlightenment, such as no-self, emptiness, and the nonduality of ultimate reality, are not an invention of Buddhism but the property of reality as
such. As the Chinese knew early on already, the universe is a true “uni-versum”; the whole
of “Heaven and Earth” as they call it, belongs to one Nature. The concept of a super-nature
above and beyond nature was never part of their outlook; and it should not delude us too.
Part of that awareness of the spiritual dimension of this, not another, world was the
connection between politics and ethics, and between environment and morality (it is
obvious that pollution and global warming are the result of greed). The ultimate force of
history is the quality of civilization, not the quantities of economies and armies. Only
righteousness and goodness (Confucius’ ren, benevolence, humaneness), instead of greed
and competition, can save the planet. Political power in classical China, legitimate
authority to rule was not justifiable by war/conquest, or heredity, or even democracy, but
by the “Mandate of Heaven.” The legitimacy of a ruler or government, and the success or
failure of their policies, depended on their virtue, wisdom and merit (karma-power) to be in
charge.
China’s founding fathers had in common a revolutionary spirit, a shift from supernatural
beliefs to humanism. The Chinese concept of Heaven, as it is still popular today, is not
based on blind faith in past revelations but on the observation of the actual order and
intelligence that guides Nature. At the center is the role of man; ethics are the real guide of
world-order – which is is “a cosmic moral order... that impartially guided the destinies of
15
human beings.”20 “The element that counts for the most is no doubt the ethical one.
Confucius was convinced that the cosmos is a moral order and that human affairs can
prosper only when they are in harmony with the moral nature of the world.”21
Happiness, wealth, health, wisdom and success, or their opposites, do not depend on a
mysterious divine will but on the activity of the human mind. Morality is not a matter of
religion, political correctness or social courtesy in the first place but of natural necessity.
To ignore, deny, or disobey the implications of this cosmic code upsets the nature of life
and the world. No one else is to blame but man himself. Every life is a function of karma;
we come back to this world again and again to redeem some debts and receive some
rewards. Personal and global peace and harmony, progress and success depend on
compliance with the laws of Nature – that enable our existence in the first place.
People prosper in so far as they are in harmony with the moral nature of the world (if some
crook is getting rich and famous, it is the result of former merit, which will be exhausted
after this lifetime, and spells no good for the future since only the bad will be left). When
the ancient kings became corrupt and cruel, their Mandate was withdrawn and people could
overthrow them to install a more deserving, wise dynasty.
To Know The Way
The central practice of Daoism was meditative concentration, defined as mind-body
transformation -- the practice that lead to the early development of science and
technology,22 but also to the recognition of Dao, The Way or the primordial, ineffable
origin of life and the universe. According to Laozi:
The Dao that can be told of is not the eternal Dao;
the name that can be named is not the eternal name.
The nameless is the origin of heaven and earth;
the named is the mother of all things...
The two are the same,
but after they are produced, they have different names...
Therefore let there always be no desire,
so we may see their subtlety.
In the Qingjing Jing (1-8) Laozi explained that he used the name Dao to describe what is
before existence, before time and space. The Chinese name for enlightenment is “wu
Dao”, to awaken for the Way. The philosopher Wang Bi (226-249 CE 23) commented that
“The Dao that can be told of and the name that can be given it, point to a particular
thing/matter and construct a form that is not eternal... All being originated from non-
20
Sources of Chinese Tradition, Vol 1, (Columbia University Press, 1999), 27
Frederick Mote, Intellectual Foundations of China, 39
22
see The Genius of China, by Robert Temple, and the many volumes of Joseph Needham, Science and
Civilization in China
23
According to Chinese tradition, exceptionally gifted people die young.
21
16
being... Therefore, if we are always without desire and empty, we may see the subtlety of
these beginnings.”
The first known Daoist texts, from the middle of the fourth century B.C.E., deal with
cosmology, political thought, and self-cultivation. Dao or The Way can be personally
experienced (the “Ground of Being” also being the ground of one’s own being). It is
possible to “awaken to the Way” through cultivating mind and body, through vital energy
and meditation training. Meditation in this context is not in the Western manner of
considering and contemplating, but it consists of calming and emptying the mind, to
become a clear mirror to reflect “things as they are”, especially the faults and shortcomings
that make us un-enlightened. Only in the absence of fleeting thoughts and feelings can the
eternal substance of reality reveal itself. The task is therefore to empty the mind and attain
a profound state of tranquility and clarity, samadhi (this may also enhance modern science
and technology, as it did in ancient China).
The political philosophy of Daoism rests on the same basic attitude of “non-action” (wuwei), because rulers meddling in people’s lives confuse their minds; it also weakens the
capacity for wisdom-in-action in the rulers’ mind. Daoism therefore advocates a return to a
simpler life-style and a government of non-interference. Its best-known work, the
Daodejing (the most translated text after the Bible), has a mystical quality that cannot
easily be conveyed in words (it is therefore recommended to read more than one
translation).
As in most ancient religions, the first Chinese rulers worshipped gods and spirits who were
believed to intercede with “the Lord on High” (Shangdi). These “sage kings” offered
rituals to Nature Powers, spirits of mountains and rivers, and to their ancestors to obtain
good climate for the harvest, military success, personal health and offspring, etc. After
several centuries, however, when their religious worship had proved to be quite futile, the
belief in a personal Lord was replaced by a neutral and impersonal Heaven (Tian) or
Nature. They also practiced divination, as in the Book of Changes (I Ching), in order to
find out about “the will of Heaven”, to comply with the trend of history and follow the
most auspicious course of action.
Cosmic Consciousness
The emperor was called the “Son of Heaven,” in the belief that he presided over the world
as a whole. Spiritual matters were inseparable from, and subordinate to, the affairs of state
(as may still seem the case in communist China, where only the “patriotic church” is
allowed to operate, independently from Rome). Religion was accepted in so far as it
reinforced the total world-order, which was at the same time cosmic, natural, political, and
religious. 24 Only the Son of Heaven was entitled to worship Heaven; lower officials
bowed to lower deities, and the people to their own ancestors. Gods and spirits were seen
as part of a great “celestial bureaucracy,”25 ranging from house-gods (still seen on little
altars in Chinese shops), to guardian angels, local spirits, celestial messengers, and to
24
25
J. Gernet, ibid. p.109
Title of a book by Etienne Balazs, La Bureaucratie celeste.
17
higher authorities. This perceived heavenly hierarchy inspired China to create the most
complex bureaucracy on earth, which was but a faint reflection of their vision of the
celestial reality.26
This ideology may, in fact, be a better approach than the modern Western view, where only
one God is recognized in one heaven, to the envy of the Others – leading to the old and
new conflicts between Yahweh, Brahma, and Allah who seems to instigate bloody
terrorism (“in the name of God”). The enlightenment teachings of Buddhism confirm a
cosmology that consists of many levels of gods and heavens in a Triple Universe that
stretches endlessly beyond the known world. Closest to earth are six heavenly realms in
what is called the Desire World; next come eighteen dhyana-heavens in the Pure Form
World, of which only the lowest is known as the abode of the Trinity; sages and mystics
discovered a still higher realm, defined in Buddhism as the four infinite realms of the
Formless World, covering ever more pure, greater, and longer lasting heavens (see The
Mind Experiment, Chapter 3).
This cosmic-spiritual understanding opens up a whole new worldview, where neither
religion nor science provide an adequate picture. The main fact is that Man is at the center
of it all. The human spirit is the only force in the whole universe to direct evolution and
development, up or down, for better or for worse. In this humanistic approach, nothing is
not part of an all-inclusive totality; not only life but also its environment – there is no life
without environment -- becomes part of an intelligible totality. The quality of the
“environment” – including heaven and hell and all space-time-energy formation in between
-- is a creation of the universe’s Mind, which is informed and directed by the power of
karma, i.e. the right-wrong, positive-negative use of the human mind (gods reside in
heaven because of some excellent karma they created as humans). There is no other power
than self-power (non-duality).
Karma and Rebirth (a better word than reincarnation, since the soul is not a fixed,
unchanging entity) happen in six possible destinies: [1] heaven, [2] the spirit-realm
between heaven and earth (called asura), [3] human, [4] animal, [5] ghost, and [6] hell.
This cosmic order offers the clue to understand destiny but also to be absolutely positive
about the future. Nothing stands in the way to create an ever more intelligent, fortunate,
brilliant life and world. Contrary to common religious beliefs, however, rebirth in “heaven
proper” – the dhyana-realms in the Pure Form World – is exceptional; it requires not only
unusually excellent karma but also a high level of meditation expertise (dhyana-samadhi).
Buddhism did, in fact, discourage people from being reborn in one of the lower Desire
heavens, because the celestials there are still confused with anger, ignorance, lust and envy
(as is obvious among their followers-believers).
Meditation
18
The crucial issue in Eastern spirituality, besides natural moral humanism, is therefore to
become clear-minded. Just as a glass of muddy water becomes clear when left alone, so
can the mind become clearer without interfering -- as we constantly do. The art of
meditation is nothing else than to stop moving, thinking and feeling, grasping and rejecting,
and let the original clarity of one’s pure awareness shine through. This exercise is the
secret for the superior, transcendental wisdom of the East.
To see clearly, the mind has to be in focus by concentrating on one point (like using a
camera, the whole picture becomes clear after focusing on one point). That means to stop
doing what we always do, moving from one thought to another. To calm down our restless
mind is no easy task, however. The ordinary mind is usually in one of two states, either
moving in distraction, uncontrollably thinking and feeling, or submerged in
unconsciousness (sleep, dreaming). Concentration power, unwavering focus with
penetrating insight, builds on both sustained practice but also, and in the first place, on
moral discipline and excellence. Without virtuous conduct, and a “mountain of merit”
from doing good in the past, no real meditation (dhyana/chan/zen) is possible. When pure
concentration power (samadhi) develops all the way to the fourth dhyana stage,
enlightenment can arise. The Buddha often described what exactly happened during the
night of his enlightenment, always mentioning the four dhyana stages:
Having detached myself from sense-desires and unwholesome states I entered and dwelled
in the first dhyana, which is accompanied by thought and examination, with rapture and
happiness born of separation.
With the stilling of thought, I entered and dwelled in the second dhyana, which has selfconfidence and unification of mind, without thought and examination, with rapture and
happiness born of concentration.
With the fading away as well of rapture, I dwelled in equanimity, and mindful and clearly
comprehending, I experienced happiness with the body; I entered and dwelled in the third
dhyana, of which the noble ones declare: “He has a pleasant abiding who has equanimity
and is mindful.”
With the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the previous disappearance of joy and
displeasure, I entered and dwelled in the fourth dhyana, which has neither pain nor
pleasure and includes the purification of mindfulness due to equanimity.
(Nikayas, passim)
The first dhyana is already a spiritual upheaval. It is experienced as a never before
encountered mental joy and physical rapture. This supreme delight is “born from
separation” from the sense impressions and discriminative thoughts; it is still sustained by
mental effort and attention. After this concentration grows in power, the second dhyana
arrives when all mental activity stops and makes place for an unmoving focus of mind that
produces a higher level of clarity and bliss, “born from concentration”. Its superior joy is
the result of being freed from all (uncontrolled) perception and enjoying mastery over the
mind -- described as a bird leaving its cage. The third dhyana is a rare accomplishment,
even in the East, and “shared only by the noble ones.” When reaching the fourth dhyana,
the Buddha was effortlessly in possession of “the three higher knowledges.”
19
These mental superpowers (S. abhijnā) are the result of the purification process that opens
up the mind’s original capacity:
When my mind was thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblemished, rid of imperfection,
malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to imperturbability, I directed it to knowledge of the
recollection of past lives. I recollected my manifold past lives, that is, one birth ... a
hundred births ... a hundred thousand births, many eons of world-contraction, many eons
of world-expansion, many eons of expansion and contraction: “There I was so named, of
such clan, with such an appearance ... and passing away there, I was reborn elsewhere.”
Thus with their aspects and particulars I recollected my manifold past lives.
This was the first true knowledge attained by me in the first watch of the night. Ignorance
was banished and true knowledge arose, as happens in one dwells diligent, ardent, and
resolute.
When my mind was thus purified ... I directed it to knowledge of the passing away and
rebirth of beings. With the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, I saw
beings passing away and being reborn, inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly, fortunate
and unfortunate, and I understood how beings fare on according to their actions (karma)
thus: “These beings who behaved wrongly by body, speech, and mind, who held wrong
view, and undertook actions based on wrong view, with the breakup of the body, after
death, have been reborn in a state of misery, in a bad destination, in the lower world, in
hell; but these beings who behaved well ... who held right view ... have been reborn in a
good destination, in a heavenly world. Thus with the divine eye ... I understood how beings
fare on according to their actions. Thus was the second true knowledge attained by me in
the middle watch of the night ...
When my mind was thus concentrated, purified ... I directed it to knowledge of the
destruction of the outflows. I directly knew as it actually is: “This is suffering. This is the
origin of suffering. This is the cessation of suffering. This is the way leading to the
cessation of suffering.” I directly knew as it actually is: “These are the outflows. This is the
origin, the cessation, and the way leading to the cessation of the outflows.”
When I knew and saw thus, my mind was liberated-purified from the taint of sensual desire,
from the taint of existence, and from the taint of ignorance. When it was liberated, there
came the knowledge: “It is liberated.” I directly knew: “Birth is destroyed, the spiritual
life has been lived, what had to be done has been done, there is no more coming back to
any state of being.”
This was the third true knowledge attained by me in the last watch of the night. Ignorance
was banished and true knowledge arose, darkness was banished and light arose, as
happens in one who abides diligent, ardent, and resolute (Majjhima Nikaya 36).27
The Buddha gained an astonishing memory and saw his innumerable former lives, in detail,
with the exact causes for being reborn, first for himself and then for the other beings
throughout the universe. After realizing how rebirth comes about, he also knew how to put
an end to it, through the “cessation of the outflows” (also called taints, defilements, faults,
corruptions, binding influences; S. asravas). These are the basic factors that support life’s
27
Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi, The Middle Length Discourses (Wisdom Publications) 104-6;
In the Buddha’s Words , (Wisdom Publications, 2005), 63-67
20
processing force and produce specific, individual becoming. They are the problems that
need to be solved in order to achieve liberation and enlightenment -- summarized as sense
desire, desire for existence or non-existence, views, and ignorance. These “outflows” are
responsible for the formation of karma that propels us in the unending cycle of birth and
death.
The “message of all Buddhas” is therefore a plain human agenda: “Avoid evil, do more
good, purify the mind.” There is nothing else to believe or adhere to, nowhere else to go
and nothing else to expect, to receive or achieve -- because no one else can save us; only
our own mind can set us free.
Ten Bonds
The purpose of meditation is not to enjoy comfort and bliss (and use up one’s good karma)
but to discern and dissolve the imperfections that burden and darken the mind and prevent
enlightenment. The outflows are further specified as the “ten bonds”, namely five negative
attitudes or disturbing emotions: [1] craving/lust/greed, [2] anger/ill-will/hatred, [3]
delusion -- the “three poisons” -- plus [4] arrogance and [5] doubt; and five wrong views:
[6] to view the body as self, [7] biased, one-sided, limited views, [8] mistaken and
perverted views (to imagine causes that are not causes, or deny causation), [9] views that
cling to norms and rules, and [10] views that cling to views. The five wrong views expand
on the last of the “ten negative actions”: taking life, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying,
exaggeration, abuse, ambiguous talk, covetousness, malice, and wrong views.
These are the bonds or fetters that condition us to act as we do, the habits that make up our
personality, the controls that keep us in check from birth to death. These are the culprits
that immerse us in ignorance and unfulfilled desire, impermanence and suffering. The
misery of non-enlightenment is caused by wrong habit-energies, not only obvious patterns
and misbehaviors but also hidden entanglements. What keeps us from attaining samadhi
and wisdom, even if we desperately want it?
They are called attachments, dispositions, proclivities (S. anusayas), afflictions, vexations
and passions (S. klesa, C. fannao) – the root-causes that inflict upon us all other problems
and faults, the compulsions that drive us to commit the same mistakes over and over again.
We stick to them unconsciously because they are “innate” dispositions, belonging to the
mental formations (the fourth volition skandha of the five aggregates that make up all
existence; explained further) that existed before we were born and that propelled us in this
and no other life experience. They are the instinctive misconceptions in all of us, prior to
our knowing and willing. They come before and after us, they “envelop” and shroud us all,
even the gods, in their fog.
Self-knowledge and self-correction are therefore the first and foremost task of all
spirituality. No belief, no other exercise or discipline, and no ritual or ceremony can
“save” us, to deliver us from our self-bondage than self-investigation, self-transformation,
and self-liberation. Saints and sages, gods and saviors, holy prophets and transcendental
Buddhas do only show the way.
21
The Analects (Lun-Yu)
1:1 Confucius said: To learn and constantly practice, is that not a delight?
“Learning” is the central theme of Confucius’ teaching, and it has been the main concern of
Chinese culture over the centuries.28 In the Analects, however, it does not mean learning in
the academic sense of accumulating knowledge, understanding and memorizing things,
facts, and data. The original meaning of Confucian learning is “education” in the sense of
“learning to be human.” “Human-being learning” is not something that can be acquired by
studying books and memorizing information; that is “book learning”, knowledge that
belongs to information and memory (a computer can probably do better).
It is a science in the sense of reasonable, systematic, and verifiable observation of human
nature. It is based on natural law and empirical evidence, not on supernatural beliefs or
mere theory, and its purpose is to enhance the human performance. Confucian learning
covers all aspects of human studies: education and psychology, family values and moral
principles, social ethics and guidelines for leadership, and the role of authority in family
and society, especially government and politics.
As a science it is based on reality-experience. Practical insight into behaving as a human
being can only be achieved through live experience, through realizing for oneself, based on
self-knowledge and self-cultivation. For example, to learn “kindness” (ren) means to
master human-kindness without having to remind oneself that it is the right thing to do, or
because one is told to, but to act naturally out of respect and goodwill for others. This
“ren” is Confucius’ central virtue.29
Real learning is not easy. According to some foremost translators:
He was asked about ren/perfect virtue. The Master said, ‘The man of virtue makes the
difficulty to be overcome his first business, and success only a subsequent consideration;
this may be called ren/perfect virtue’. (James Legge)
Asked about benevolence, the Master said: ‘The benevolent person reaps the benefit only
after encountering difficulties. That can be called benevolence’. (D.C. Lau)
Asked about humanity, Confucius said, ‘The person of humanity considers first of all what
is difficult in the task and then thinks of success. Such a person may be called humane’.
(W.T. Chan)
To be learned and educated means to know-how to be human, not to have knowledge.
Whatever one has will eventually be lost, but what one is can never be taken away. To be
28
Chinese students are still among the best at Western universities.
Ren is also translated as humanity (W.T. Chan), perfect virtue (James Legge), goodness (A.Waley),
benevolence (D.C. Lau), human-heartedness (S. Leys), humaneness (B. Watson), authoritative conduct (R.
Ames, H. Rosemont).
29
22
a true human or a “real person” (jen ren) means to be good, not good at something but at
being human; to do only what is good and right, to behave oneself and handle affairs
correctly, no matter the circumstances. Even someone who is illiterate can achieve real
learning. The final purpose of learning, the one thing we take with us further through life,
and beyond the grave, is self-realization.
The aim of life is self-development. To realize one’s nature perfectly – that is what each of
us is here for. (Oscar Wilde)
To perfectly realize one’s potential one has to be clear about self-development and act
accordingly. To understand the importance and consequences of morality and to practice
it, brings happiness. Real happiness arises from living a moral life. Confucius’ delight
derives from understanding-in-action, from constantly being mindful.
In classical Chinese culture there is the Confucian ideal of “gentleman” or “exemplary
person” (junzi). Similarly in Daoism, the highest ideal is that of a “sage” and a “true
person” (jen ren). Later this became also the epithet for enlightened or realized persons,
those who have perfectly realized human nature and “attained the Way” (de Dao).
In order to reach that highest goal, one has to behave accordingly. Only correct conduct, in
accordance with the Way, in harmony with Dao (mentioned 80 times in the Analects) can
lead to enlightenment, awakening for the Way, self-realizing the Ground and Substance of
being. Such discovery not only realizes the one and only Self of all and everything, the
Mind of life and the world, but it is also in command of its life (immortality). It choses
freely and autonomously its realm to manifest itself (omnipresence), and it understands all
there is to be known (omniscience). This wisdom is the mark of sages; they are sages
because they have realized the essence of the mind. They have dissolved the wrong views,
wrong attitudes and wrong activities that constitute non-enlightenment. They have stopped
thinking and feeling the illusions and limitations of a separate ego (no-self), and have
become one mind with the Mind of the universe.
In all Three Teachings – Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism – a “real person” means
someone who has achieved the final goal of being human: perfect morality and complete
insight, but also pure concentration, without being distracted or absent-minded anymore,
even when asleep. To function as a perfect human being exemplifies the transcendental
wisdom and the spiritual powers that are dormant in all of us (Einstein, who was not
enlightened, declared already that we use only 10% of our potential). A “normal” human
being, anyone who is not a Real Person, even the best among us, is therefore more like a
“fake person”, trying or pretending but not real, not really awake but “asleep” (as was also
recognized in Greek and Roman classics).
Non-enlightenment is not being aware of what life and the world are all about. Buddhism
calls this ignorance the root problem of our existence. Not-knowing but instead
entertaining all kinds of thoughts and feelings – that do not represent the truth – is the
fundamental “first cause” for being born and reborn again and again, beyond our
knowledge and control. Not recognizing true reality, not only ignoring but also denying
23
and contravening the meaning of life, leads of itself to the endless, uncontainable and
overwhelming “suffering” of life and death in Samsara.
Death-and-rebirth is the work of Nature when its natural meaning and purpose are denied.
It is like the universal Mind trying to set us straight by giving us another chance, as long as
we keep spoiling “it” – our potential of eternal happiness, purity, and autonomy of Nirvana.
No matter what we believe, life and the world happen according to the universal law of
cause and effect. This is at the same time the source for undefeatable optimism. What is
right and wholesome generates only positive energy to enjoy a better life and a better future
in a better world, until the Way (of perfection) appears before us. The universe displays a
boundless creativity, limitless life and light that are not the work of an “Other’s” creation
but of the Mind’s infinite intelligence and Nature’s wonderful resourcefulness – still way
beyond the grasp of science.
For all classical sages, for Confucius and Laozi as well as Socrates and Buddha, to become
a “true person,” to clearly and fully understand the meaning of life and the universe, is not
a small and easy matter. Once resolved to follow and realize the Way, the real work can
begin: discern, weaken, and finally eliminate the bonds that bind us to Samsara. Only
meditation, not reliance on any outer factors, is able to create the clarity and mental power
to achieve this. Non-enlightenment is so serious that it usually takes three lives of
sustained effort to reach the goal of enlightenment.
The way to go about becoming a self-realized person is involvement in “real life”: constant
attention, self-inspection and self-correction in one’s interaction with others. Daily life is
one’s textbook, school, and teacher to detect and abandon one’s shortcomings, which is
only a negative achievement, and to cultivate virtue and wisdom. As the Chinese word ren
suggests (composed of “human” and “two”), to be human means to be in relation and adopt
the correct attitude towards parents and family, superiors and friends, in marriage, society,
and government. Excellence is not achieved on one’s own and for oneself but through
being-for-others (also the ideal of religion).
“Examine faults to understand goodness” said Confucius; human learning involves finding
out where one is wrong and changing. “To improve is to change, to be perfect is to change
often,” said Winston Churchill. The road to perfection is an upheaval of our way of life, of
the way we take ourselves and everything for granted. Self-improvement begins with
realizing what is going wrong (in all of us) and to change, instead of ignoring or excusing
where we fail – which is why we are not enlightened.
Spiritual training demands “constant practice,” not mindfulness only when we think of it.
This is an attitude of constant awareness and frequent reflection until self-examination and
self-correction become natural and spontaneous. (People usually die with the same faults,
or more, they are born with). Practical experience from daily attention and unwavering
consideration will then develop into ever growing insight and expanding consciousness.
“Know Thyself” proceeds slowly and with difficulty (who does not think to be right and
others wrong?) until it takes root, grows strong and blossoms into clear presence of mind,
24
at all times – which generates a new and great delight. Real delight comes from light,
when something has dawned upon us.
6:22 To know something is not as good as being fond of it; to be fond of something is not
as good as rejoicing in it.
Confucius was a joyous man, interested and enthusiast, not a dry man of learning. One of
his disciples was once asked what kind of person he was, and he replied “Why did you not
simply tell him that Confucius is a man driven by so much passion that in his enthusiasm
he often forgets to eat and is unaware of the onset of old age?” He once heard such a fine
piece of music that “for three months he forgot the taste of meat.” Unfortunately, we have
no idea how it sounded like; the classic “Book of Music” disappeared in the book burning
of Qin in 213 BC.
The Master also said that love and ecstasy are superior forms of knowledge, suggesting that
he knew dhyana-samadhi, the precondition for great wisdom. The same can be seen in
Socrates’ case, who had an incredible concentration power (he was known to stand up for a
day and night in unmoving concentration); he was not only “the wisest” but also “the most
virtuous man of his time.” Dhyana-concentration is the source of all superior spiritual,
religious, philosophical, and artistic inspiration, as was also suggested by Plato’s “truth,
goodness, and beauty.”
The main point of learning is constant mindfulness, clear awareness of what is going on -in one’s own mind in the first place. All action issues from the mind; if one cannot be
aware and take control of one’s inner life, the outer life is even more out of control.
Constant learning in the spiritual sense is observation and investigation, commitment to
actual, practical, not imagined or ideal, daily reality. It involves training “even when one is
alone.” Self-discipline, the source of the West’s and Socrates’ philo-sophy or love of
wisdom, is a forgotten art nowadays.
The superior delight that accompanies moral perfection arises from the harmony of being
in tune with the Mind of the universe; Dao is the infinite source of meaning and happiness,
light and power. When “the Way appears before us,” mind and body are transformed and
energized with Its immeasurable and inexhaustible blessings, intelligence, goodness,
beauty, and glory.
1:2 To have friends come from afar, is that not a joy?
Is he not a true gentleman who feels no resentment when others ignore his merits?
To practice this kind of learning one should be prepared for loneliness and failure of
success. To do what is right and renounce what is not right, demands self-denial and selfsacrifice, doing it for the benefit of the world instead for ourselves or some title and
recognition. In a society where self-interest and self-importance prevail, one will hardly be
understood.
Confucius himself knew it all too well. He led a simple and poor life and did not attain any
25
prominence or authority. In the eyes of the world he was unsuccessful, and he probably
never thought that people would still be listening to him after 2,500 years. Although he
once had an opportunity to obtain an official position and was urged by some of his
disciples to exercise public influence and political power, he did not accept it, because he
knew that at that time no other problems – political, social, psychological, cultural – could
be solved as long as the basics of “education” were lacking. The reason why he did aspire
to find a suitable ruler, but did not find one, was to implement his views on education,
society, and government. The solution for all problems lies in correct thinking, clearminded vision, and consequent action. “For a gentleman there is what should be done and
what should not be done,” he said at another occasion, and “when goodness is attained,
righteousness follows naturally.”
The mind not only initiates but also follows one’s behavior; one can only think clearly
when one’s conduct is correct. A clear mind is the result of “righteousness” and
“goodness”, the central virtues of Confucius. Traditionally called “the nature of virtue and
power,” only virtue, the positive energy of goodness (excellent karma) generates the
psycho-physical power to create a happy life in a healthy environment. Therefore,
Confucius rather spent his life in poverty but devote himself to moral education.
Although a life committed to learning faces the possibility of not being understood, true
learning brings of itself friendship and recognition. “Is it not a joy that friends should come
from afar?” From afar does not necessarily mean from distant places but rather the rarity
of the occasion. When one is primarily concerned with ethical development, for the benefit
of this and the next generation, it may not be easy to find someone who really understands
us, a true friend. As in the old Chinese saying: “If during a lifetime one person understands
us, we shall die without regret.” That person, a friend with whom we can share our deepest
thoughts and feelings, may not even show up among family and colleagues. For
Confucius, loneliness lasted as “far” as a few centuries, before he received due attention
and recognition.
Even if nobody understands us in this lifetime, we should not be resentful. People in
general like to complain, dissatisfied with themselves and with things as they are;
especially when facing difficulties, hardship or criticism, they “resent heaven and blame
man” (Mencius), judging and criticizing everything and everyone except themselves.
Learning for learning’s sake means to recognize and overcome difficulties and obstacles, to
examine oneself and find out why we can’t change (before changing the world); not to find
fault with another person or reason, not even thinking of putting the blame on someone or
something else. This attitude is typical for a “gentleman” who is focused on developing
wisdom and the transpersonal power of virtue.
When self-cultivation reaches fulfillment, ease and satisfaction, one can impart joy to the
world.
What is joy with oneself? To sit in quietude at one's leisure, one day equals two. What is
joy shared with another? An evening's talk with a gentleman is better than years of book
reading. What is joy shared with the community? When one is empty of everything, there is
26
room for hundreds of people. (Chen Mei Gong, 1558-1639)
This joy transcends ambitions and emotions, and one can naturally “be unknown without
feeling resentment.” On the other hand, the more influence and recognition, the higher
position and responsibility, the more wealth and fame people acquire, the more they may
be full of themselves.
2. Master You said: Those who behave as good persons towards their parents and
brothers seldom like to go against their superiors; it has not yet occurred that someone
who does not like to go against his superiors wants to start a rebellion. A gentleman
devotes himself to the roots, for when the roots are established, the Way grows; filial piety
and fraternal love, are they not the roots of human behavior?
The beginning of humane conduct is good behavior towards those we owe most gratitude.
Humanity starts at home; filial piety and brotherly love became the typical spirit of Chinese
culture. In the name of Confucianism, however, these virtues were sometimes abused and
represented by those in power as unconditional submission to superiors and parents.
Authoritarian regimes have used so-called traditional values to legitimatize their
undemocratic and unsocial policies (“if the children take care of the parents, and the family
takes care of their poor, disabled, and sick members, then the state does not have to”). The
slogan was that “there are no parents who don't behave like parents,” meaning that “there
are no bad parents.” This is not Confucius' view, however. How can one love parents who
don't behave like parents? Filial piety is based on reciprocity; love and respect for parents
are the result of parents' love and care. Children return the love of those who gave them
birth and devoted the best years of their life to their upbringing. It is also natural that when
an older brother or sister is good for a younger one, the younger will love and respect the
older.
This is the universal Way of Nature, especially human nature. Man may consider himself
as the top-intelligence, but other living beings may think otherwise. The animal world
probably regards man as the worst of all. From their viewpoint, man domesticates and
torments them to slaughter and eat them. What makes us different and superior is human
culture; moral-spiritual civilization makes our worth.
All living creatures share a beautiful virtue: mother’s love. When animals can follow their
motherly nature – as a hen cares for her chicks and a tiger for her cubs --, why would
modern people be unable to accomplish it? Human culture starts at the roots; only then can
there be “added value”. In the eyes of the Eastern tradition, Western society has developed
an odd social system, providing “a paradise for children, a market for adults, and a
graveyard for the elderly.” Modern love extends downwards, from parents to children;
society cares for the next generation more than for those who built up its present prosperity.
Once grown up, people form couples with no further obligation than to take care of their
small family, while in the East the greater, extended family is the core of society. It should
be obvious that children return their parents' love and care, and do not leave them on their
own when they are old and in need. How can there be religious talk of love and charity if
the basic condition of filial piety is neglected?
27
If society cuts itself loose from its roots, from basic human feelings, values, and
responsibilities, then the further loosening of society should not come as a surprise: loss of
principles and vision, growing selfishness and antagonism, confusion and permissiveness
leading to the disintegration of society and the fading of culture, to “the closing of the
mind.”30 It is indeed hard to imagine a troublemaker coming from a good family.
In the course of more than five thousand years of history (Confucius praised already
“antiquity” and disapproved of the “modern” state of affairs), after this long experience of
trial and error, disintegration and recovery, the Chinese social system developed “the five
social relations”: between ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, older and
younger siblings, and between friends. Friendship occupies a prominent psychological and
social function. There are things people can hardly talk about with superiors, parents,
spouses, children or relatives, but only share with a friend. “Brotherly love” (not
homosexuality) is not limited to brothers and sisters but it extends to humanity at large. All
Men are Brothers is the title of Pearl Buck’s translation of the famous Chinese classic Shui
hu zhuan (she was the first American woman to receive a Nobel prize in 1938 for “her
finest work and a classic of American prose.”)
The modern focus of education has become specialized knowledge, to prepare for a job;
someone without a job is like a nobody; and who has an important job does not have to
worry about being humane. Humankindness is based on inner quality, not specialized
quantity (expertise, turnover, efficiency). A symptom of this reversal of values is the
absence of a common awareness about the realization of human-spiritual nature, which is
not any religious creed or scientific (agnostic) belief but the wisdom and compassion of
enlightenment, i.e. “clear and complete understanding of the meaning of life and the
universe.” One has to look at China of more than a millennium ago to find real belief in,
and know-how about, the pinnacle of human intelligence.
Confucius’ purpose of learning is goodness or “holiness” in the sense of wholeness,
something that is not taught and that few may ever think of learning. The central question
for humanity is “What makes goodness so important? How can one perfectly realize
human nature”? – which is not the focus of modern education, as it was for Confucius.
3. The Master said: Clever words and pleasing manners are seldom goodness.
Goodness is not a nice attitude or pleasing talk. Confucius apparently saw people who
were good at preaching sermons and delivering speeches on love, righteousness and justice,
but were in fact pretending, not practicing, goodness. To adopt an air of benevolence, or to
speak convincingly, or to smile brightly but dishonestly, is not human excellence. Those
who have a leading role may find it difficult not to enjoy convincing others. Who does not
like to give advice, to influence and persuade others; and who is not flattered when
complimented – instead of feeling uncomfortable as it befits a true gentleman? True
learning for a leader means in the first place to know one's own and others' shortcomings,
30
Title of a book by Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind: How Higher Education has Failed
Democracy and Impoverished the Souls of Today’s Students
28
without being duped by success and admiration; just as one should remain unruffled when
criticized or abused.
A good orator is seldom a good politician, Confucius might say today. Leading others
easily turns into hypocrisy, based on self-deceit instead of self-perfection. Learning is
down-to-earth, “constantly practicing” self-cultivation, otherwise “nice theories and
ingratiating manners” may turn into self-righteousness instead of righteousness.
4. Master Zeng said: Every day I examine myself on three points: In acting on behalf of
others, have I been loyal? In dealing with friends, have I failed to be truthful? Have I failed
to practice what has been transmitted?
Master Zeng was forty-six years Confucius’ junior. The Great Learning is ascribed to him
while a student of his wrote the Doctrine of the Mean. Mencius was a third generation
student. Learning is quite simple, according to Zeng, just ask yourself these three things.
To be loyal when working for others (business, finance, insurance, medicine, industry and
economy handle matters for others) simply means to do one's best. The Chinese word for
“loyal, faithful” depicts a heart under “middle, at the center”, meaning a firm attitude
without shifting or diverting one's intention. In ancient times it had a slightly different
meaning, of doing everything and treating everybody with all your heart, as best as you
can. The word “truthful” depicts a “person” standing by “word”, meaning fidelity to an
agreement or engagement, sincerity, trustworthiness, worthy of belief. To be truthful with
friends means not to go back on one's word and live up to one’s promise. The third point,
“practice what has been transmitted” is Confucius' initial theme: learning does not mean
intellectual luggage but understanding through practice. This shows how difficult this
seemingly easy learning is.
5. Confucius: To rule a country of a thousand chariots, handle matters with reverence and
be trustworthy; economize expenditure and love people; employ civilians at proper times.
Learning does not only concern self-cultivation but also social and political culture.
Chariots in Confucius’ time were war chariots together with their infrastructure (soldiers
and other personnel, logistic and economic support such as land taxes, etc.). “Country”
could be a feudal state or local political unit. To govern a large country or a small region
or even an office, the task is to respect the job and administer its affairs conscientiously and
reverently (bureaucrats are not renown for reverence). The essential task of a politician is
to be trustworthy, to win the confidence of the people, which is achieved by treating them
and their affairs with respect and sincerity. To economize expenditure (cut a deficitbudget) is not only an economic but a social principle, in the interest of society and the next
generations.
Confucius’ third advice to leaders, “to draft civilians at proper times,” was not only meant
for the military, public works or other labor, but for everyone in charge. One has to know
the ethics and tactics of time (as illustrated in Sun-zi’s Art of War). When people are called
upon at the right time only, they will gladly serve and naturally follow.
29
These virtues of leadership were aimed at specific social maladies and political
malpractices of the time (where the labor of people was wantonly employed to build
prestigious projects, for instance), but for Confucius they are part of self-cultivation and
derive from his philosophy of learning in general. His greatness lies in the fact that they
are still applicable today, and a guidance for the future, because they are so natural that
they are universal and valid at all times, in East and West, and essential for both selfrealization and social-political action. Realizing enlightenment is recognizing universal
Self-Nature; self-cultivation builds on goodness.
6. Disciples should display filial piety at home and brotherly love in society, be thoughtful
and truthful, with universal love for everyone, and then befriend goodness. If carrying this
out and they have still energy to spare, they can study culture.
The Chinese word for disciple is the same character as for younger son. In the past, the
relation of a teacher with a student was like that of father to son. “To follow the teacher for
one day and he is like a father for life” meant that the teacher had a lifetime responsibility
towards his students, and that they likewise remained reverent, no matter how high they
climbed. This respect for teachers was part of the “three ways” in Chinese society: the way
of the sovereign or the art of governing (a nation or a family); the way of the official or
civil servant to be loyal and sincere in serving the government and the people; and the way
of the teacher. These three formed a unity; education, administration, judicature, culture,
and ethics interacted with civilization as a whole. There was not yet the fragmentation of
modern civilization.
A student should display filial piety at home and brotherly/sisterly love when away from
his/her family. This means an attitude of friendship, fellowship, goodwill and harmony,
not only towards friends, but towards society and people in general, not just partisan or
patriotic but universal and inclusive of the world. To be thoughtful, attentive, and careful
is not narrow-minded or reserved. Truthful means to be trustworthy with people in general.
This generates the broad-mindedness to embrace all people with universal love, which is
the sum total of Confucius’ three ways: “to love all people like myself.” When this is
accomplished, he said, you can cultivate friendship with like-minded, learned and
principled people, and if there is still opportunity and energy left, devote it to the arts.
7. Zi Xia said: To change one’s behavior when treating persons of excellence, to be able to
serve father and mother with all one's ability, to be able to offer one's person in the service
of superiors, and to be true to one's word in relating with friends, although it may be said
that this is not yet learning, I should certainly call it learning.
Zi Xia (Tzu-Hsia), a disciple of Confucius who was much younger, became one of the
most influential scholars of his time. He is an example of the fact that history, culture, and
society are guided by the mind, by the prevailing ideas and attitude towards learning, by
man's view about himself and his role in the world.
Learning means that one has to learn to examine one’s attitude and exert oneself to the
utmost. To be in the service of a sovereign does not condone autocratic policies,
30
authoritarianism, dogmatism or dictatorship, as was later erroneously presumed (Chinese
communism condemned Confucius for it, while practicing it). The way of a sovereign is
like the way of a sage (much like the “philosopher-king” of Plato. A sovereign rules
because of his superior qualities, not with the purpose of ruling but for being a good leader;
the ruled will then be delighted to serve a capable superior.
The meaning of this line is a good relationship with one’s superiors. A good superior is
someone who knows and understands us, who needs our help and to whom we agree to
help; once agreed, we keep our word and do our best, not halfheartedly. Like in marriage,
once we have given our word we stick to it, from beginning to end, otherwise we shouldn't
make promises. This mutual trust and loyalty, to exert all one's strength in service, is
human behavior. In reality, one often pretends, puts on a respectful air, and gives help not
as much but as less as one can; gossip and disagreement with what comes from the boss is
not the way of a subject but of inadequate behavior, of being insincere.
In contemporary language: to react with awe and respect when seeing admirable persons, to
serve our parents and family with all our heart, to abandon selfish motives in serving the
nation and society, to be trustworthy in our relations with friends and, although it may
sometimes be difficult, to live up to our promises.
Confucius is all about correcting human conduct, the first leg of the tripod; if this falls
short, the human mind will lack both concentration power and clear insight, let alone
transcendental wisdom. This sheds some light on “the closing of the modern mind”.
MENCIUS
“Confucius had seventy disciples who became teachers, ministers, and friends of the feudal
lords and other officials, or simply went into retirement. During the next century there was
fighting everywhere throughout the empire between the Warring States, and Confucianism
declined ... During the reigns of Kings Wei and Hsuan (357-301 B.C.) there were such
persons as Meng Tzu (Mencius, 380-289 B.C.) and Hsun Ch’ing (Hsun Tzu), who
followed the teachings of the Master and developed them, becoming famous in their
generation for their learning ...
“Confucius had been the first to make teaching his profession, and his example was
followed by the later Confucians. Of these the greatest were easily Mencius and Hsun Tzu.
Confucius holds a place in Chinese history comparable to that of Socrates in the West. The
position of Mencius is comparable to that of Plato, his temperament and philosophy both
being idealistic ... Mencius said: ‘From Confucius downward to today there have been one
hundred odd years.31 Thus I am not yet far from the generation of that Sage, and am
extremely close to his residence.32 Under these circumstances is there no one (to transmit
31
32
Confucius died in 479 and Mencius was born in 372.
Mencius’ mother moved three times to give him a good education.
31
his doctrines)?’ Mencius definitely conceives of himself as the only man, in a time of
disorder and intellectual confusion, able to perpetuate Confucius’ teachings.” 33
Mencius has a famous passage that many Chinese with a traditional education know by
heart:
When Heaven is about to confer a great responsibility on any man, it will exercise his mind
with suffering, subject his sinews and bones to hard work, expose his body to hunger, put
him to poverty, place obstacles in the paths of his deeds, so as to stimulate his mind,
harden his nature, and improve wherever he is incompetent. (6B:15)
Another famous passage is about a central theme in Chinese philosophy and medicine, the
vital energy (qi, pronounced ch’ee) that makes us alive and is the focus of acupuncture. It
explains the mind-body transformation that takes place when one reaches a state of pure
awareness in meditative concentration (C. ding, S. samadhi). In advanced meditation the
energy-channels (acupuncture meridians) open up and flow through. “Concentration is still
focused on a single object, but samadhi-awareness will no longer have a connection with
the physical realm; only then can one know what transcendental wisdom and liberation
from the mortal body and the material world means. Even death no longer makes an
impression, and all one has to do is maintain this concentration until the energy flows
completely through and fills all cells. Then the body becomes suspended and superfluous,
personal energy unites with cosmic energy, consciousness pervades all space.”34 Mencius
reached such concentration level at the age of forty:
“My mind has not moved since I was forty,” said Mencius ...
“I wonder if you could tell me something about the mind that cannot be moved?”...
“The attention is the leader of the vital energy while the energy is that which fills the body.
Where the attention arrives there follows the energy. Therefore it is said, “Hold the
attention and do not force the energy.” When the attention is unified/concentrated the
energy is activated, and when the energy is unified the attention is activated ...
I am good at cultivating my vast-flowing energy ... It is difficult to explain. This energy is
supremely great and supremely firm. If cultivated with integrity and without impediment, it
covers all between Heaven and Earth. This energy connects rightness with the Way;
without this, it disintegrates. It is generated by the accumulation of rightness, and cannot
be obtained by assuming rightness. If the mind is dissatisfied with conduct, it starves.
You must work at it and never forget it. (Mengzi, 2A 2)
This spiritual power training was originally called “art of the mind” and “inner training,”
and later “cultivation of the Way (xiu Dao).” It starts with the cultivation of morality and
virtue (the “De” of “Dao-De Jing” means both power and virtue). Just as in ancient Greek
philosophy, Chinese wisdom recognized the universe as a moral order. Mencius explains
the transformation process from being an ordinary person to becoming a sage as a sequence
based on the power of virtue and concentration, leading to wisdom:
33
34
Fung Yu-Lan, A History of Chinese Philosophy, 106, 208
Nan Huai-Chin
32
What is good and what is true? To desire it is called good. To possess it in oneself is
called true. To fully realize it is called beautiful. To shine forth with its fullness is called
great. To be great and be transformed by it is called sage. To be sage and transcend
knowledge is called spirit (divine, shen). (7B 25)
All elements of spiritual cultivation are present: building on the karmic merit of right
conduct and on constant mindfulness (“work at it and never forget it”), body and mind
enter a state where the obstructions (psychological and physical problems) are lifted and
the energy-circuitry of body and brain fills up with new, pure energy, causing an ecstatic
bliss feeling. This body-mind purification prepares for the level of “noumen” or divine
spirit (dhyana) and opens the door to meta-physical knowledge. The I Ching mentions
already this level of pure spirit as a natural, tangible experience: “Where yin and yang do
not penetrate is called shen.”
Mencius’ spiritual program combines conduct with wisdom and compassion (also the main
Buddhist virtues):
The ten thousand things are all here in myself.
There is no greater joy than to look into myself and find self-realization.
There is nowhere nearer to seek goodness than in persistently regarding others as
oneself. (7A 4)
The vital energy or qi is the psycho-physical life force that constitutes the human
phenomenon and the whole universe. It is in the air we breathe, “like a pearl in an
envelope,” not oxygen which is a chemical, but related to pneuma in Greek and prana in
Indian philosophy and yoga. It is the energy that vitalizes the body (the energy
infrastructure that supports biological formation and functioning); the personal and
universal life force, the cosmic energy that supports the universe and all things and
phenomena in it. It is active as Yang (positive) and passive as Yin (negative). In this
cosmic continuum solid and dense matter represent the most heavy and coarse forms of qi,
while the human soul and all psychological and spiritual phenomena, including heavens
and spirits, are ethereal, purer forms of qi, made of “higher physics”.
The most common practice to enter mental concentration is the coordination of breathing
and mindfulness. Like “pranayama” in Indian yoga and “anapana” in Buddhism, the
Daoist tradition of “refining the breath” and “nourishing one’s immortal being” aims at
nurturing this qi-energy, to energize body and mind, clarify the mind to the level of clear
spirit (shen), and merge with cosmic, omnipresent energy.
When thoughts stop moving breathing also stops; pure qi fills the whole body that starts
breathing on its own, without intake of air, self-producing energy in all cells. This is the
state of pure concentration that is needed for higher consciousness (as was also known by
Socrates and religious mystics in the West). Dhyana-samadhi is the gateway to reach pure
clarity of mind, acquire insight and wisdom, and experience the superior joy and ecstasy of
both mental and physical bliss. Modern science has discovered the preliminary benefits of
meditation to reduce stress and restore health, because it energizes the body and brain and
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enhances both mental and physical wellbeing (“meditation reshapes the brain”).
Concentration power elevates one’s life experience, from enhanced memory, less sleep,
health and longevity, all the way to the highest levels of spiritual-mystical experience
(without the need for religious blind faith).
“Benevolence is man's mind, while rightness is man's path.” Mencius found human nature
to be good, and like Confucius he advocated benevolence and righteousness. The question
is to know what is right and wrong; and what did the self-cultivation of the ancient sages
consist of?
Mencius stresses that “rightness” is internal and that it is not necessary to seek validity in a
given theory or revelation in history, nor in the social and cultural conditions, nor in
prevalent opinions. One can simply judge correctly on the basis of a purified, energized
mind. Since the personal standard of right is in one's consciousness, one can recognize
right and wrong in the words and opinions one encounters. Wisdom is not outside, in
books or sacred traditions, but in the mind.
THE GREAT LEARNING (Da Xue) Section 1
The Way of Great Learning is to reveal the illustrious power of virtue,
to renovate the people, and to rest in the highest good. 35
Knowing how to rest leads to concentration,
concentration leads to tranquility,
tranquility leads to calm,
calm leads to consideration,
and consideration leads to attainment.
Things have their root and branches,
affairs have their end and beginning.
To know what comes first and what last comes close to the Way.36
A similar doctrine in Greek philosophy: “The highest good is to arrive at the enjoyment of such nature...
that is the knowledge of the union that the mind has with the whole of nature.”
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36
Here follow three different translations by [1] James Legge (1815-1897), [2] E.R. Hughes (1943), and [3]
Andrew Plaks (2003):
大學之道
在明 明德,
在親民,
在止于至善.
知止而后有定
L What the Great Learning teaches,
H The Way of learning to be great
P The Way of self-cultivation, at its highest level, is a three-fold path:
is to illustrate illustrious virtue;
consists in shining with the illustrious power of moral personality,
it lies in causing the light of one’s inner moral force to shine forth,
to renovate the people;
in making a new people,
in bringing the people to a state of renewal,
and to rest in the highest excellence.
in abiding in the highest goodness.
and in coming to rest in the fullest attainment of the good.
The point where to rest being known, the object of pursuit is then determined;
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Just as things have a fundamental core and peripheral aspects—roots and branches—so too
have human affairs their endings and beginnings. To grasp fully the proper ordering of
things, from first to last, is a precondition for approaching the Way.
How do men come to know the Way? I say it is through the mind.
How does the mind know? I say it is through emptiness, union (concentration), and
stillness. The mind never stops storing up things; nonetheless, it has what is called the
capacity for emptiness. The mind is forever filled with conflicting ideas; nonetheless, it has
what is called the capacity for concentration. The mind never stops moving; nonetheless, it
has what is called the capacity for stillness...
Not allowing one thing to interfere with another is called union. When the mind is asleep, it
dreams. When it is relaxed, it moves of its own accord. When it is employed, it schemes.
Therefore, the mind never stops moving; nonetheless it possesses the quality called
stillness. Not allowing dreams and fantasies to disrupt this capacity to know is called
stillness.
The Art of the Mind, Xunzi, XIV, 21.5d
The Way of Heaven is to move 37 without blocking up 38, and so the ten thousand things are
completed. The Way of the emperor is to move without blocking up, and so [the world]
under Heaven finds refuge. The Way of the sage is to move without blocking up, and so all
within the seas listen to him.
Who is clear about Heaven and realizes sagehood, penetrates the six [directions] and
illuminates the four [frontiers] with the virtue/power of emperors and kings, he acts
定而后能靜
靜而后能安
安而后能慮
To know one’s abiding place leads to fixity of purpose,
Only when one comes to understand this point of rest can one reach a state of unwavering
stability.
and, that being determined, a calm unperturbedness may be attained to.
fixity of purpose to calmness of mind,
Having reached this unwavering state, one can then enjoy an unruffled quietude;
To that calmness there will succeed a tranquil repose.
calmness of mind to serenity of life,
having attained this state of quietude, one can then achieve an inner calm;
In that repose there may be careful deliberation,
serenity of life to careful consideration of means,
once one has achieved this inner calm, one is then in a position to exercise one’s capacity to
deliberate clearly.
慮而后能得。
and that deliberation will be followed by the attainment of the desired end.
careful consideration of means to the achievement of the end.
And it is the capacity of deliberation that provides the basis for all moral attainment.
Things have their root and their branches. Affairs have their end and their beginning. To know what is first
and what is last will lead near to what is taught in the Great Learning.
Things have their roots and branches, human affairs their ending as well as beginnings. So to
know what comes first and what comes afterwards leads one near to the Way.
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yün: gyration, to evolve/revolve, to function/operate; the way heaven acts to make all things as they are
ji: to accumulate; here: obstacle, impediment, to clog, to immobilize; unnecessary accumulation or
sophistication that obstructs the mind to exercise virtue and power
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naturally and spontaneously, and “unknowing” he never leaves stillness.39
The sage is still not because he says ‘Stillness is good’ and is therefore still; he is still
because nothing of the ten thousand things is sufficient to distract his mind. Water that is
still clearly reflects beard and eyebrows; its even level is the standard by which a great
craftsman measures. If water in stillness is already so clarifying, how much more is the
spirit’s essence, in the stillness of the sage’s mind, the mirror of Heaven and earth, the
mirror of the ten thousand things.
Emptiness and stillness, calm and serenity, tranquility and silence, non-action, these are
the even level of Heaven and earth, the ultimate of the Way and its Virtue. Therefore the
emperor, king, and sage rest in them. When resting they are empty, when empty they are
real/full, and with fullness comes order. From emptiness comes stillness, from stillness
comes motion, from motion comes achievement. In stillness they are non-acting, and in
non-action those charged with affairs fulfill their responsibility. Non-action leads to
serenity, and in serenity no worry and trouble 40 can take place, and life is long. What is
empty and still, calm and serene, tranquil and silent, non-acting, is the root of creation.
The Way of Heaven, Zhuangzi, Chapter 13, 1-7
Con-centration, centering all consciousness on a single point, it becomes an empty-open
presence of mind that merges with the “emptiness... the root of all creation.” To be one
with the source of creation, oneself becomes a source of creation, an inexhaustible well
(instead of a limited pump) of knowledge and understanding, imagination and creativity.
“A gentleman or superior person is not a tool/instrument.” (Confucius)
This kind of “non-action” (wu-wei) is, in fact, the highest degree of action; it not only leads
to wisdom in the sense of realizing the ultimate, empty formlessness of Dao, but also of
knowing how to function and manifest De in the arts and sciences. To exercise this mindbody transformation in spontaneous virtue means perfection, thinking and doing only what
is wholesome.
The way to this wisdom is all-inclusive and involves all faculties. Prior to the clarification
of the mind is an optimal functioning of the human being in both physical health and moral
character. Human “accomplishment,” in the Confucian sense of becoming an excellent
human being, comes before wisdom, higher consciousness (dhyana), and enlightenment or
sagehood. This process of learning (Confucianism), concentration training and wisdom
(Daoism) constitutes “cultivation of the Way” or spiritual cultivation.
Self-cultivation includes all aspects of life: nature and culture, religion and science, physics
and ethics, politics and the arts; it includes bio-energy, mind-body transformation, health
and longevity, gongfu and martial arts, leadership and strategy, divination and
understanding the Mandate of Heaven. This is why ancient Chinese “philo-sophy” or love
of wisdom covers all of these, and more.
The Problem of God
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40
jing: the state of mental calm (samatha) or concentration without distraction
huan: disaster, anxiety, illness
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Dao – the absolute substance of reality – transcends, grounds, and permeates the whole of
being, spiritual as well as material. There is only one; if there were two or more, It would
not be absolute (infinite, eternal, autonomous, etc.) but relative, limited in space-time-form
and in power, yielding to the presence of the other(s).
Gods in Heavens exist, and because they exist, none of them is absolute but defined by the
features of all existence: caused to be and dependent on other causes to exist (not self),
having a beginning and an end (not eternal), limited to the space-form/energy conditions of
heaven (not omnipresent), and not all-knowing and all-mighty.
This may come as a surprise, since Western religions believe “God” to be absolute. But it
also comes as a relief for all those who are struggling with a lack of faith or find
themselves unable to believe in religion as a whole. However, this should not dismiss the
most important feature of religion; Gods exist because of their exceptional excellence, and
their existence should encourage us to be mindful and good, because only goodness has the
power (karma) to create a better future for ourselves and the world.
Above all, religion provides a crucial part of the road toward enlightenment, as long as it
avoids blind faith and bigotry but stresses the importance of morality and virtue, and faith
in a higher order of reality. Without these life does not make sense and humanity is
reduced to a rational (cruel) animal kingdom. Religion offers two legs of the spiritual
tripod: conduct (morality) and mindfulness (prayer, contemplation). That is why some
Christian mystics, following the road of meditation and apparently entering the dhyanastages of pure concentration, also approached the top of the spiritual mountain, where all is
seen with the eye of transcendental wisdom: as not-self and empty.
No-self and Emptiness are the two hallmarks of enlightenment, and together with karma
and reincarnation the main difficulties for understanding Buddhism and enlightenment in
general.
The first question about karma is not whether it exists or not, or what the different concepts
are in different cultures, but where the differences among people come from. What are the
origin and causes for intelligence and stupidity, wealth and poverty, health and disease,
long or short life –
if they are neither the creation of (an almighty) God, nor the result of material
circumstances and coincidences.
Karma is the power of creation with a rigidity that, no matter what people try, cannot be
avoided or altered, “not in a hundred thousand lifetimes.” Whatever one experiences is
simply the result of former conduct. It is not because it cannot be “seen” that it does not
exist; one can clearly see it at work – always and everywhere.
There is nothing happening to us, in this lifetime or hereafter, that has no reason. The
fundamental law of science, of cause and effect, is not restricted to what the eye can see or
instruments register. Without former causes and conditions, nothing comes into being; and
whatever comes into being takes a specific form (including spiritual beings and
environments), created by the specific power of karma. To ask if karma exists is as much
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as asking if we exist; it is the one and basic law of all existence.