1.
I.
FRQ - To what extant were the European conflicts between 1500-1600 religious or political
ordeals? Make sure to cite evidence that supports your evaluation.
Hapsburg-Valois Wars (c. 1519-1559)
A. Treaty of Cateau-Cambrèsis, 1559
1. Ended the Habsburg-Valois Wars (last purely dynastic wars of the 16th century)
2. These wars had been political in nature (and thus not religious) since both France
and the Holy Roman Empire were Catholic.
B. France had kept the Holy Roman Empire from controlling all of Germany, while
inadvertently helping Lutheranism to spread
1. France chose the political issue of a possible strong German state on its eastern
border as being more important than the religious unity of Europe.
2. This was a major reason for Germany’s inability to move towards unification early
on.
C. Spain defeated France for control of Sicily, Naples, and Milan while Spanish influence
was also strong in the Papal States and Tuscany.
 Politics of Europe shifted toward Spain during its “Golden Age” in the late-16th
century.
II. From 1560 to 1648 wars would be fought largely over religious issues
A. Spain sought to squash Protestantism in Western Europe and the spread of Islam in
the Mediterranean.
B. French Catholics sought to squash the Huguenots
C. The Holy Roman Empire sought to re-impose Catholicism in Germany
D. The Calvinist Netherlands sought break away from Spanish rule
E. A civil war occurred in England between Puritans and Anglicans
III. Spain’s Catholic Crusade
A. Philip II (1556-98): Like his father, Charles V, fanatically sought to re-impose
Catholicism in Europe
1. Under Philip, Spain became the dominant country in Europe: “Golden Age” of
Spain
2. Escorial: new royal palace (and monastery and mausoleum) was built in the
shape of grill to commemorate the martyrdom of St. Lawrence
 Symbolized the power of Philip as well as his commitment to his Catholic
crusade
B. Spain waged a war against the Turks in the Mediterranean to secure the region for
Christian merchants.
1. Battle of Lepanto (1571): Spain defeated the Turkish navy off the coast of
Greece
2. Spain’s religious fervor in its battle with the Turks was reminiscent of the earlier
Christian Crusades.
3. Ended the Ottoman threat in the Mediterranean
C. The Dutch Revolt in the Netherlands
1. William I (William of Orange) (1533-1584), led 17 provinces against the
Spanish Inquisition
 Philip sought to crush the rise of Calvinism in the Netherlands
2. United Provinces of the Netherlands formed in 1581 (Dutch Republic)
a. Received aid from England under Elizabeth I
b. Major blow to Philip’s goal of maintaining Catholicism throughout his empire.
c. Spanish Netherlands (modern-day Belgium): the 10 southern provinces
remained under Spain’s control
d. The Dutch closing of the Scheldt River resulted in the demise of Antwerp as
Europe’s commercial center and the rise of Amsterdam
D. Spain vs. England
1. Queen Mary Tudor (Philip’s wife) had tried to re-impose Catholicism in England
a. When she died, Queen Elizabeth I reversed Mary’s course via the
“Elizabethan Settlement”
b. Elizabeth later refused Philip’s request for marriage.
2. Elizabeth helped the Protestant Netherlands gain independence from Spain
3. Philip sought revenge for England’s support for the Dutch as well as hoping to
make England Catholic again.
 He thus planned a monumental invasion of England in 1588
4. Spanish Armada, 1588
a. Spain’s attempt to invade England ended in disaster
b. Much of Spain’s navy lay in ruins due to a raging storm in the English Channel
as well as the effectiveness of England’s smaller but better-armed navy.
c. Signaled the rise of England as a world naval power
d. Although this event is often viewed erroneously as the decline of Spain’s
“Golden Age”, Spain still remained powerful until the mid-17th century
IV. French Civil Wars (at least 9 wars between 1562-1598)
A. After the death of Henry II in 1559 a power struggle between three noble families for
the Crown ensued
1. The throne remained in the fragile control of the Catholic Valois family.
 Three French kings from 1559 to 1589 were dominated by their mother,
Catherine de Médicis, who as regent fought hard to maintain Catholic
control in France
2. Between 40-50% of nobles became Calvinists (Huguenots)—many were Bourbons
a. Many nobles ostensibly converted for religious reasons but sought
independence from the crown.
b. Resulted in resurgence of feudal disorder in France
c. The Bourbons were next in line to inherit the throne if the Valois did not
produce a male heir.
3. The ultra-Catholic Guise family also competed for the throne; strongly antiBourbon
4. Fighting began in 1562 between Catholics & Calvinists
 Atrocities against rival congregations occurred
V. Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) – most important war of the 17th century
A. Failure of the Peace of Augsburg, 1555
1. The 1555 agreement had given German princes the right to choose either
Catholicism or Lutheranism as the official religion of their states.
2. The truce in Germany lasted for 60 years until factionalism in the Holy Roman
Empire precipitated a cataclysmic war
VI. English Civil War (Puritan Revolution) –(see also Unit 3.2)
A. Since the reign of James I (1603-1625) there had been a struggle between the king
and Parliament regarding taxation and civil liberties
1. Both James I and his successor, Charles I, believed in “divine right” of kings
and absolutism
2. The monarchy strongly defended the Anglican Church
B. Parliament was composed of many Puritans (English Calvinists) and Presbyterians
(English Calvinists who favored the Scottish Presbyterian organization of John Knox)
C. Charles I (r. 1625-1649) twice dissolved Parliament
1. In effect, Charles ruled as an absolute monarch between 1629 and 1640.
2. He raised money using Medieval forms of forced taxation (those with a certain
amount of wealth were obligated to pay)
3. “Ship money”: all counties now required to pay to outfit ships where before
only coastal communities had paid.
4. Religious persecution of Puritans by Charles I became the biggest reason for the
English Civil War.
D. Civil War broke out in 1642: Cavaliers supported the king; Roundheads
(Calvinists) opposed the king
. War of Devolution (First Dutch War), 1667-68
1. Louis XIV invaded the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) without declaring war.
2. Louis received 12 fortified towns on the border of the Spanish Netherlands but
gave up the Franche-Comté (Burgundy)
C. Second Dutch War (1672-78)
1. Louis invaded the southern Netherlands as revenge for Dutch opposition in the
previous war.
2. Peace of Nijmegan (1678-79)
a. Represented the furthest limit to the expansion of Louis XIV.
b. France took Franche-Comté from Spain, gained some Flemish towns and took
Alsace
D. War of the League of Augsburg (1688-97)
1. In response to another invasion of the Spanish Netherlands by Louis XIV in 1683,
the League of Augsburg formed in 1686: HRE, Spain, Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony,
Dutch Republic
 Demonstrated emergence of balance of power
2. William of Orange (now king of England) brought England in against France.
 Began a period of Anglo-French military rivalry that lasted until Napoleon’s
defeat in 1815.
o (Study Device: This could be viewed as a “second Hundred Years’ War”:
1689-1815)
3. War ended with the status quo prior to the war
 France remained in control of Alsace and the city of Strasbourg (in Lorraine).
2.
FRQ - To what extent did the balance of power remain intact in Europe between 1600 and
1715?
. Overview
3. Perhaps the first time in modern European history that one country was
able to dominate politics
4. A balance of power system emerged
a. No one country would be allowed to dominate the continent since a
coalition of other countries would rally against a threatening power.
b. Dutch stadholder William of Orange (later King William III of England)
was the most important figure in thwarting Louis’ expansionism
B. War of Devolution (First Dutch War), 1667-68
1. Louis XIV invaded the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) without declaring
war.
2. Louis received 12 fortified towns on the border of the Spanish
Netherlands but gave up the Franche-Comté (Burgundy)
C. Second Dutch War (1672-78)
1. Louis invaded the southern Netherlands as revenge for Dutch opposition
in the previous war.
2. Peace of Nijmegan (1678-79)
a. Represented the furthest limit to the expansion of Louis XIV.
b. France took Franche-Comté from Spain, gained some Flemish towns
and took Alsace
D. War of the League of Augsburg (1688-97)
1. In response to another invasion of the Spanish Netherlands by Louis XIV
in 1683, the League of Augsburg formed in 1686: HRE, Spain, Sweden,
Bavaria, Saxony, Dutch Republic
 Demonstrated emergence of balance of power
2. William of Orange (now king of England) brought England in against
France.
 Began a period of Anglo-French military rivalry that lasted until
Napoleon’s defeat in 1815.
o (Study Device: This could be viewed as a “second Hundred Years’
War”: 1689-1815)
3. War ended with the status quo prior to the war
 France remained in control of Alsace and the city of Strasbourg (in
Lorraine).
E. War of Spanish Succession (1701-13)
1. Cause: The will of Charles II (Hapsburg king) gave all Spanish territories
to the grandson of Louis XIV
 European powers feared that Louis would consolidate the thrones of
France and Spain, thus creating a monster power that would upset the
balance of power
2. Grand Alliance emerged in opposition to France: England, Dutch Republic,
HRE, Brandenburg, Portugal, Savoy
3. Battle of Blenheim (1704)
a. A turning point in the war that began a series of military defeats for
France
b. England’s army, led by the Duke of Marlborough (John Churchill—
ancestor of the 20th century leader Winston Churchill) and military
forces of Savoy (representing the HRE) were victorious
4. Treaty of Utrecht (1713)
a. Most important treaty between the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) and
the Treaty of Paris (1763)
 Maintained the balance of power in Europe
 Ended the expansionism of Louis XIV
b. Spanish possessions were partitioned
 Britain was the biggest winner
o Gained the asiento (slave trade) from Spain and the right to
send one English ship to trade in Spain’s New World empire
o Gained the Spanish territories of Gibraltar and Minorca.
 Belgium (Spanish Netherlands) given to Austria
 Netherlands gain some land as a buffer against future French
aggression
c. Though Louis’ grandson was enthroned in Spain, the unification of the
Spanish and Bourbon dynasties was prohibited.
d. Kings were recognized as such in Sardinia (Savoy) and Prussia
(Brandenburg)
1. Great Northern War (1700-1721)
a. Russia (with Poland, Denmark and Saxony as allies) vs. Sweden
(under Charles XII)
b. Battle of Poltava (1709) was the most decisive battle in Russia
defeating Sweden.
c. Treaty of Nystad (1721): Russia gained Latvia and Estonia and thus
gained its “Window on the West” in the Baltic Sea.
3.
FRQ - Compare and contrast absolutism in eastern Europe with that of France in western
Europe.
I. Absolutism:
A. Derived from the traditional assumption of power (e.g. heirs to the throne)
and the belief in “divine right of kings”
 Louis XIV of France was the quintessential absolute monarch
B. Characteristics of western European absolutism
1. Sovereignty of a country was embodied in the person of the ruler
2. Absolute monarchs were not subordinate to national assemblies
3. The nobility was effectively brought under control
a. This is in contrast to eastern European absolutism where the nobility
remained powerful
b. The nobility could still at times prevent absolute monarchs from
completely having their way
4. Bureaucracies in the 17th century were often composed of career officials
appointed by and solely accountable to the king
 Often were rising members of the bourgeoisie or the new nobility
(“nobility of the robe” who purchased their titles from the monarchy)
5. French and Spanish monarchies gained effective control of the Roman
Catholic Church in their countries
6. Maintained large standing armies
 Monarchs no longer relied on mercenary or noble armies as had been
the case in the 15th century and earlier
7. Employed a secret police to weaken political opponents
8. Foreshadowed totalitarianism in 20th century but lacked financial,
technological and military resources of 20th century dictators (like Stalin &
Hitler).
a. Absolute monarchs usually did not require total mass participation in
support of the monarch’s goals
 This is in stark contrast to totalitarian programs such as
collectivization in Russia and the Hitler Youth in Nazi Germany.
 Those who did not overtly oppose the state were usually left
alone by the government
EAST
A. Eastern European absolutism differed from French absolutism
1. Eastern absolutism was based on a powerful nobility, weak middle class,
and an oppressed peasantry composed of serfs.
2. In France, the nobility’s power had been limited, the middle-class was
relatively strong, and peasants were generally free from serfdom.
 Louis XIV built French absolutism upon the foundations of a welldeveloped medieval monarchy and a strong royal bureaucracy.
B. Threat of war with European and Asian invaders were important motivations
for eastern European monarchs’ drive to consolidate power.
1. Resulted in reduced political power of the nobility.
 However, nobles gained much greater power over the peasantry.
2. Three important methods of gaining absolute power:
a. Kings imposed and collected permanent taxes without the consent of
their subjects.
b. States maintained permanent standing armies.
c. States conducted relations with other states as they pleased.
3. Absolutism in eastern Europe reached its height with Peter the Great of
Russia.
 Absolutism in Prussia was stronger than in Austria.
B. Serfdom consolidated between 1500 and 1650
1. Hereditary serfdom was re-established in Poland, Russia, and Prussia by
the mid-17th century.
2. In Poland, nobles gained complete control over peasants in 1574 and
could legally impose death penalties on serfs whenever they wished.
3. 1694, the Russian tsar rescinded a 9-year term limit on recovery of
runaway serfs.
4. This period saw growth of estate agriculture, especially in Poland and
eastern Germany.
a. Food prices increased due to influx of gold & silver from the Americas.
b. Surpluses in wheat and timber were sold to big foreign merchants who
exported them to feed the wealthier west.
C. Why serfdom in eastern Europe and not western Europe?
1. Reasons were not necessarily economic.
 West was also devastated by the Black Death and the resulting labor
shortages helped labor.
2. Political reasons more plausible – supremacy of noble landlords.
a. Most kings, in fact, were essentially “first among equals” in the noble
class and directly benefited from serfdom.
b. Eastern lords had more political power than in the west; monarchs
needed the nobles
c. Constant warfare in eastern Europe and political chaos resulted in
noble landlord class increasing their political power at the expense of
monarchs.
d. Weak eastern kings had little power to control landlord policies aimed
at peasants.
 Strong sovereign kings were not in place prior to 1650.
e. Peasants were weaker politically than in the west.
 Uprisings did not succeed.
 Peasant solidarity in the east was weaker than western
communities.
f. Landlords undermined medieval privileges of towns and power of
urban classes.
 Population of towns and importance of urban middle classes
declined significantly.