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Communication
Processes
Stewart L. Tubbs
McGraw-Hill
© 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 2
Communication Processes
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Glossary
Case Study
Communication
Case Study
Language Behavior
Case Study
Self-Disclosure
Interaction Roles
The Systems Approach
© 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 3
Glossary
• Appropriateness—includes several factors that help
determine the timing and extent of self-disclosure.
• Bypassing—a misunderstanding that occurs when the
sender . . . and the receiver . . . miss each other with their
meaning.
• Content and Process—content of a group discussion
includes comments about the topic of the discussion.
Process is the manner in which the discussion is conducted.
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Slide 4
Glossary
• Defensive-Supportive Communication —
defensive communication occurs when a psychological
barrier is created, known as a defense mechanism. This
barrier acts to reduce effective communication. Supportive
communication minimizes these types of problems.
• Emotional Intelligence—personal and interpersonal
skills that enable one to induce desired responses in others.
• Group-Building and Maintenance Roles—
help the interpersonal functioning of the group and alter the
way of working by strengthening, regulating, and
perpetuating the group.
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Slide 5
Glossary
• Group Task Roles—identifiable behaviors that are
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directed toward accomplishing the group’s objective.
Individual Roles—roles that are designed to satisfy an
individual’s needs rather than to contribute to satisfying the
needs of the group.
Inference Making—refers to going beyond
observations and what we know. Inferences have only a
low probability of coming true.
Intentional-Unintentional Communication—
Intentional communication occurs when we communicate
what we mean to. Unintentional communication occurs
when we communicate something different from what we
intend.
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Slide 6
Glossary
• Polarizing—the exaggeration that occurs when people
attempt to make a point.
• Signal Reactions—learned responses to certain
stimuli, such as emotional reactions to offensive swear
words or racial slurs.
• Verbal-Nonverbal Communication—verbal
communication is the use of words to get across a message.
Nonverbal communication is the use of physical actions,
such as facial expression or tone of voice, to get across a
message.
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Slide 7
Case Study
The Departmental E-mail
1. What do you think would have been your reactions if
you were Jones, Cameron, or Hotchkiss?
2. What would have been your reactions if you were one
of the members of the department?
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Slide 8
Communication
• Emotional Intelligence
– A combination of intrapersonal communication
(personal competence) and interpersonal
communication (social competence).
• Communication Defined
– The process of creating meanings in the minds
of others.
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Slide 9
Communication
• Communication Defined . . . (continued)
– O’Hair, Friedrich, and Shaver (1998, pp. 4-5)
identify six key components of effective
communication skills:
1. Creative insight is the ability to ask the right
questions.
2. Sensitivity means [a person] practices the golden
rule.
3. Vision means being able to create the future.
4. Versatility is the capacity for anticipating change.
5. Focus is required to implement the change.
6. Patience allows . . . people to live in the long term.
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Slide 10
Communication
• Communication Defined . . . (continued)
– Communication among group members may
depend on the nature of the group.
• Intentional-Unintentional Communication
– Unintentional messages may be transmitted by
action as well as by words.
– Like the intended message, feedback also has
content and relationship levels.
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Slide 11
Communication
• Intentional-Unintentional . . . (continued)
– Groups are one context in which we get
feedback on behaviors that help us eliminate
unintentional cues.
• The gap between what we intend to communicate
and what is actually received is called the arc of
distortion.
• Most experts agree that effective feedback should
(1) be clear and understandable, (2) come from a
trusted person, and (3) be as immediate as possible.
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Slide 12
Communication
• Verbal-Nonverbal Communication
– Visual cues
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Facial expression
Eye contact
Body positioning
Hand gestures
Style of dress
Physical appearance
Body movements
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Slide 13
Communication
• Verbal-Nonverbal Communication (cont’d)
– Vocal Cues
• Vocal cues include regional dialects, methods of
pronunciation, and the five major factors:
– Volume—speaking with adequate loudness is the first
responsibility of any communicator.
– Rate and fluency—if the person is able to articulate well, a
faster rate seems to be more interesting to listen to.
– Pitch—refers to the frequency in cycles per second (CPS)
of the vocal tones.
– Quality—refers to the resonance of the voice.
– Inflection—refers to the relative emphasis, pitch changes,
and duration in uttering different word parts in a sentence.
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Slide 14
Communication
• Verbal-Nonverbal Communication (cont’d)
– All verbal and nonverbal cues are perceived as a
whole.
– Nonverbal communication takes a different
form at the organizational level.
• An open-office layout, as opposed to the
conventional, individual-office design, is often
conducive to communication in the workplace and
can lead to greater employee satisfaction.
• The décor and layout of corporate offices lead to the
impressions that people have about that corporation.
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Slide 15
Communication
• Defensive-Supportive Communication
– Gibb (1961) described defensive and supportive
communication climates that Whetton and
Cameron (2002) have refined:
Supportive Climates
Description
Problem orientation
Spontaneity
Empathy
Equality
Provisionalism
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Defensive Climates
Evaluation
Control
Strategy
Neutrality
Superiority
Certainty
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Slide 16
Communication
• Defensive-Supportive Communication
– Sometimes it may become necessary to criticize
a group member.
1. Direct critical comments to the work, and not to the
person who performed it.
2. Turn individual criticism into a group criticism by
making the statement general.
3. Present the criticism in a way that forces the group
members to come up with answers to the problem.
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Slide 17
Communication
• Defensive-Supportive Communication
– LaFasto and Larson (2001) divide
communication patterns into four types:
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Explicit rejection (disconfirming)
Implicit rejection (disconfirming)
Explicit acceptance (confirming)
Implicit acceptance (confirming)
• Content and Process of Communications
– One rather difficult distinction to make about
group discussion is the difference between the
content of the discussion and the process.
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Slide 18
Communication
• Listening
– When we can make the other person feel really
understood, we are often seen as effective
communicators.
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Slide 19
Communication
• Listening . . . (continued)
– Improving listening skills:
1. Pay attention and show positive nonverbal behavior.
2. Listen for content. Describe what you hear, then
attempt to state what it means to you.
3. Try not to interrupt.
4. Try not to argue mentally.
5. Ask for clarification rather than assuming you know
what is meant.
6. Avoid side conversations.
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© 2004 The McGraw-HillSource:
Companies,
Adapted
Inc.from
All rights
Gregory,
reserved.
1999.
Slide 20
Communication—Practical Tips
Tjosvold and Tjsovold (1991) offer the following
practical advice on how to communicate
effectively in a team setting.
1. Express your own ideas clearly and logically, but avoid
arguing blindly for them. Consider other viewpoints.
2. Change your mind based on the … logical [points] of
others. Do not change your mind [only] to avoid
conflict.
3. See a consensus decision. Avoid majority voting,
tossing a coin.
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Slide 21
Communication—Practical Tips
Tjosvold and Tjsovold (1991) . . . (continued)
4. Foster opposing views. Encourage people to become
involved and speak their minds.
5. Discuss underlying assumptions and ideas.
6. Strive for a win-win solution that incorporates the best
of all ideas.
7. Reconsider an earlier decision. (pp. 136-37)
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Slide 22
Case Study
Niggardly Controversy (A)
1. What do you think of the mayor’s action to dismiss Mr.
Howard for the use of the word niggardly?
2. What do you think of Mr. Howard’s judgment in using
the word in a district that is 65 to 85 percent black?
3. What other examples can you cite of your experiences
in groups where language has created a problem for the
group?
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Slide 23
Language Behavior
• The study of the interaction between verbal
symbols and the thought patterns associated
with them is referred to as general
semantics.
• Bypassing
– In group discussions, the entire focus of the
discussion may be diverted by a difference in
interpretation of a given word.
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Slide 24
Language Behavior, Bypassing
—Practical Tips
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Be person-minded, not word-minded.
Question and paraphrase.
Be receptive to feedback.
Be sensitive to context.
© 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 25
Language Behavior
• Inference Making
– In attempting to analyze behaviors, it is wise to
recognize that analyses often involve inferences
that go beyond what we have observed and
involve some probability for error.
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Slide 26
Language Behavior
• Polarizing
– The statements get more intense emotionally.
– The statements go from being specific to being
more general.
– The statements tend to move away from the
topic at hand to other issues.
– The simple restating technique can be quite
potent in reducing the problem of polarization.
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Slide 27
Language Behavior
• The Relationship Between an Object and the
Symbol for the Object
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Slide 28
Language Behavior
• The Same Object May Be Represented by
More than One Symbol
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Slide 29
Language Behavior
• Inferences versus Observations
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Slide 30
Language Behavior
• Surface and Hidden Agendas Compared
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Slide 31
Language Behavior
• Signal Reactions
– A study that directly tested emotional reactions
to verbal symbols proved that strong
physiological reactions to symbols are typical
rather than pathological.
– In group discussions, certain phrases—referred
to as idea killers or communication stoppers—
are likely to produce signal reactions that are
counterproductive (Tubbs and Moss, 2003).
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Slide 32
Language Behavior—
Practical Tips
• Idea Killer Phrases
–“That’s ridiculous.”
–“We tried that before.”
–“That will never work.”
–“That’s crazy.”
–“It’s too radical a change.”
–“We’re too small for it.”
–“It’s not practical.”
–“Let’s get back to reality.”
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– “You can’t teach an old dog
new tricks.”
– “We’ll be the laughingstock.”
– “You’re absolutely wrong.”
– “You don’t know what you’re
talking about.”
– “It’s impossible.”
– “There’s no way it can be
one.”
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Slide 33
Language Behavior—
Practical Tips
• Igniter Phrases
– “I agree.”
– “That’s good!”
– “I made a mistake. I’m
sorry.”
– “That’s a great idea.”
– “I’m glad you brought
that up.”
– “You’re on the right
track.”
– “I know it will work.”
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– “We’re going to try
something different today.”
– “I never thought of that.”
– “We can do a lot with that
idea.”
– “Real good, anyone else?”
– “I like that!”
– “That would be worth a try.”
– “Why don’t we assume it
would work and go from
there.”
© 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 34
Case Study
Niggardly Controversy (B)
1. What do you now think of Mr. Howard’s use of the
word?
2. What do you now think of the mayor’s actions?
3. What lessons have you learned about language behavior
from this case?
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Slide 35
Self-Disclosure
• Perhaps one of the greatest dilemmas facing
a group member is the choice between
openly expressing his or her thoughts and
feelings and concealing or distorting inner
feelings, thoughts, or perceptions.
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Slide 36
Self-Disclosure
• The Johari Window
– The Johari window classifies an individual’s
relating to others according to four quadrants
(or windowpanes).
• Quadrant 1, the open quadrant, represents our
willingness to share with others our views on general
topics.
• Quadrant 2, the blind quadrant, represents the things
others may know about us that we do unintentionally
and unknowingly.
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Slide 37
Self-Disclosure
• The Johari Window
– The Johari window . . . (continued)
• Quadrant 3, the hidden area, represents the feelings
about ourselves that we know but are unwilling to
reveal to others.
• Quadrant 4, the area of the unknown, includes almost
anything outside our experience.
– Luft advocates changing the shape of the
window so that quadrant 1 enlarges while all the
others become smaller.
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Slide 38
Self-Disclosure
• The Johari Window
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Source: Joseph Luft. Group Processes: An Introduction to Group Dynamics, by permission
© 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
of Mayfield Publishing Company. Copyright © 1963, 1970 by Joseph Luft.
Slide 39
Self-Disclosure
• When Is Self-Disclosure Appropriate?
– Luft (1969) proposes the following guidelines:
1. When it is a function of the ongoing relationship.
2. When it occurs reciprocally.
3. When it is timed to fit what is happening.
4. When it concerns what is going on within and
between persons in the present.
5. When it moves by relatively small increments.
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Slide 40
Self-Disclosure
• When Is Self-Disclosure Appropriate?
– Luft (1969) . . . (continued)
6. When it is confirmable by the other person.
7. When account is taken of the effect disclosure has
on the other person(s).
8. When it creates a reasonable risk.
9. When it is speeded up in a crisis.
10. When the context is mutually shared.
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Slide 41
Interaction Roles
• Group Task Roles
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Initiating-contributing
Information seeking
Opinion seeking
Information giving
Opinion giving
Coordinating
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Slide 42
Interaction Roles
• Group Task Roles . . . (continued)
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Elaborating
Orienting
Evaluating
Energizing
Assisting on procedure
Recording
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Slide 43
Interaction Roles
• Group-Building and Maintenance Roles
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Encouraging
Harmonizing
Compromising
Gatekeeping and expediting
Setting standards or ideals
Observing
Following
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Slide 44
Interaction Roles
• Individual Roles
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Aggressing
Blocking
Recognition seeking
Self-confessing
Acting the playboy
Dominating
Help seeking
Special-interest pleading
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Slide 45
The Systems Approach
• Many authors stress that the participants in
any communication event are highly
dependent on one another.
• The type of group and the personalities,
genders, body shapes, and ability levels all
interact to produce the outcome.
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Slide 46
The Systems Approach
• Four problems related to language
behavior—bypassing, inference making,
polarizing, and signal reactions—are related
to both the background factors of the
individuals and the eventual consequences
of group discussion.
• Appropriate self-disclosure will vary
considerably from group to group.
• Group task and group maintenance roles
contribute the group’s needs.
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