Diction
Say What You Mean and
Mean What You Say
Diction
Is at the heart of any discussion about
style
 =word choice, figurative language,
sound of sentences
 Above and beyond grammar, creates
the tone of a text

Diction

Tone
The speaker’s attitude toward the subject
matter or audience, as revealed by the
choice of language and the rhythms of
speech
 E.g. sarcastic, matter-of-fact, cold,
energetic, academic, humorous, etc.

Diction

Level of language:

Formal


characterized by a learned vocabulary and
grammatically correct forms. Does not usually
include colloquialisms
Informal

language closest to everyday conversation;
may include colloquialisms and slang
Diction

Level of language:

Slang


Lively, colourful language that is often limited
to certain groups (social, regional) and passes
in and out of fashion
“Fine Writing”

Unnecessarily formal or pretentious diction
Two-Part Verbs

Simple verb in combination with
another word or words

E.g. cool off, sit down, find out
Often form idiomatic expressions that
are informal or colloquial in tone
 Avoid or use sparingly in academic
writing

Figurative Language
Provides a writer with the
opportunity to write imaginatively,
while also testing the imagination of
the reader
 Helps readers visualize what is
being written about
 Enhances style by making texts
more interesting
 Sharpens meaning

Imagery

Creates pictures in the reader’s
mind, and also suggests a number
of imaginative associations
Figure of Speech
An example of figurative language
that states something that is not
literally true in order to create an
effect
 Some common figures of speech
are:

Simile
A comparison using “like” or “as.”
The similarity between two objects
is made explicit; there is no
pretence of absolute identity.
 Example:


The river is like a snake winding across
the plain.
Metaphor
An assertion that two things in
some way similar are identical
 Example:

The river is a snake winding across the
plain.
 The river snakes its way across the
plain.
 The river winds snakily across the
plain.

Irony
Recognition of the difference
between real and apparent meaning
 There are many different types of
irony, but the most common in
academic writing is:

Verbal Irony
The contrast is between the literal
meaning of what is said and what is
meant; the meaning of the words
used is the opposite of their sense.
 Satire (and its cousin sarcasm) is a
form of verbal irony.

Figurative Language Gone Wrong

Inappropriate Metaphors


Create images that don’t make sense or
are inappropriate for your audience
Overextended Metaphors

Are too long, and the metaphor takes
control; in other words, the point you want
to make is lost
Figurative Language Gone Wrong

Dead Metaphors & Clichés


Have little force and tend to be ineffective
Mixed Metaphors

Abruptly switch from one comparison to
another without intending to
Concrete and Abstract Diction

Concrete words


Denote tangible things capable of being
apprehended by the physical senses
Abstract words

Denote intangible things like ideas or
qualities
Concrete and Abstract Diction
You need a combination of both, but be
sure to ground your writing in the concrete
(use specific examples to illustrate your
points)
 Readers remember the concrete – it
illustrates and lends meaning to the
abstract
 The more specific (i.e. concrete) your
writing is, the clearer and more effective it
will be

Weak Generalizations
AVOID AT ALL COSTS!!!
 Use examples and always be specific
 Employ:

Figurative language
 Imagery
 Research sources

as necessitated by the assignment
Denotation and Connotation

Denotation
What a word means (dictionary definition)
 What a word signifies without emotional
associations, judgements, or opinions


Connotation
What a word suggests
 Usually determined through context

Denotation and Connotation
When choosing words, pay attention to
connotative meanings that you may not
intend
 Example:

Brash denotes confidence, but has
negative connotations
 Self-assured also denotes confidence, but it
carries more positive connotations

Euphemism
An inoffensive or positive word or phrase
used to avoid a harsh, unpleasant, or
distasteful reality
 A tactful word or phrase which avoids
directly mentioning a painful reality



(from William Lutz, “The World of Doublespeak”
Only the first definition constitutes
“doublespeak”

doublespeak is misleading or deceiving
Jargon
The specialized language of a trade,
profession, or similar group
 Is doublespeak if it is used to make the
simple seem complex, “used not to
express but to impress” (Lutz)

Bureaucratese
A method of piling on words to
overwhelm the audience
 it sounds good but really makes no
sense

Inflated Language
Remember “Fine Writing”?
 Political correctness can fall into this
category
 Often also constitutes a kind of
euphamism

Wrong Word
Incorrect word choice is a common
student error
 If you aren’t sure what word to use,
consult your dictionary

Wordiness & Redundancy
Clear the deadwood
 Strive for clarity and precision
 As you proofread and revise a text,
delete unnecessary words but keep or
add exact ones .

Wordiness & Redundancy

Wordy first draft:


In the early part of the month of February
there was a really mean blizzard with very
high winds that was moving threateningly
toward Halifax.
First revision:

In the early part of the month of February
there was a really mean blizzard with very
high winds that was moving threateningly
toward Halifax.
Wordiness & Redundancy

Second revision:


In early February a (really mean) vicious
blizzard with (very high) 150-kilometer-perhour winds was (moving threateningly
toward) threatening Halifax.
Finished copy:

In early February a vicious blizzard with
150-kilometer-per-hour winds was
threatening Halifax.
Wordiness & Redundancy

Compare:
In the early part of the month of February
there was a really mean blizzard with very
high winds that was moving threateningly
toward Halifax.
 In early February a vicious blizzard with
150-kilometer-per-hour winds was
threatening Halifax.

Wordiness & Redundancy
Make every word count
 Omit words or phrases that add nothing
to your meaning
 Guidelines for omitting wordiness:

Wordiness & Redundancy

Avoid tautology (the use of different
words to say the same thing)

Wordy:


Commuters going back and forth to work or
school formed carpools.
Concise:

Commuters formed carpools.
Wordiness & Redundancy
The useless words in brackets below serve
only to echo meaning
 Avoid such wordiness in your own writing:








yellow [in colour]
circular [in shape]
at 9:45 pm [that night]
return [back]
[basic] essentials
bitter[-tasting] drink
but [though]
Wordiness & Redundancy

Do not use many words when a few will
express the idea well

Wordy:


In the event that the evaluation system is
changed, expect complaints on the part of
employees.
Concise:

If the evaluation system is changed, expect
complaints from employees. (2 words take the
place of 8)
Wordiness & Redundancy

Wordy:


As far as sexism is concerned, it seems to
me that a woman can be as guilty of
sexism as a man.
Concise:

A woman can be as guilty of sexism as a
man. (11 useless words deleted)
Wordiness & Redundancy

Beware ready-made phrases:









at this point in time→now
bring to a conclusion→conclude
during the same time that→while
in a great many instances→often
on account of the fact that→because
situated in the vicinity of→near
was of the opinion that→believed
by means of →by
due to the fact that →because
Passive Voice
Passive voice is wordy.
 Active voice is direct.
 Example:

Be assured that action will be taken.
 I assure you that I will act.


Passive voice often leaves the actor of
the verb out of the construction (as in
the example above).
Awkward Repetition
Avoid careless or needless repetition of
a word or phrase
 Faulty:



This interesting instructor knows how to
make an uninteresting subject interesting.
Revised:

This instructor knows how to make a dull
subject interesting.
Awkward Repetition

Awkward:


Revised:


We had a hard time solving these problems.
Awkward:


We had problems solving these problems.
His boss is not like her boss. Her boss is more
reliable than his boss.
Revised:

Their bosses are different. Hers is more
reliable than his.
Awkward Repetition
Avoid carelessly repeating a root or
word base.
 Awkward:



I got the impression that his expression of
sympathy was insincere.
Revised:

I felt that his expression of sympathy was
insincere.
Awkward Repetition
Eliminate careless rhymes and other
distracting repetition of sounds.
 Awkward:



The use of catalytic converters is just one
contribution to the solution of the problem
of air pollution.
Revised:

The use of catalytic converters is just one
way to help reduce air pollution.
Politics and the English Language
(by George Orwell)

Written in 1946, yet his complaints
about Modern English still relevant

The errors and shortcuts that he points
out are those we have just discussed
Politics and the English Language

Questions writers should ask themselves:
What am I trying to say?
 What words will express it?
 What image or idiom will make it clearer?
 Is this image fresh enough to have an
effect?
 Could I put it more shortly?
 Have I said anything that is avoidably ugly?

Politics and the English Language
Orwell wants us to ground our writing
in the concrete rather than in the
abstract.
 Be specific, not vague.
 Choose rather than simply accept the
language that you use – come up with
your own metaphors and turns of
phrase rather than using ready-mades.

Politics and the English Language

Rules writers should follow:
Never use a metaphor, simile, or other
figure of speech which you are used to
seeing in print.
 Never use a long word where a short one
will do.
 If it is possible to cut a word out, always
cut it out.

Politics and the English Language

(Rules cont’d)
Never use the passive voice where you can
use the active.
 Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific
word, or a jargon word if you can think of
an everyday English equivalent.
 Break any of these rules sooner than say
anything outright barbarous.
