LEADERSHIP
Chapter 11
Leadership Matters….
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Intellectually
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Politically
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productively, economically, idealistically
Personally
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societally, culturally, globally, communally, &
perhaps idealistically
Practically
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historically, psychologically, sociologically
interpersonally, ethically, selfishly
Scientifically
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empirically, conceptually
What is Leadership ?
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“The process of influencing the
activities of an organized group in its
efforts toward goal setting and goal
achievement” (Stogdill, 1950, p. 3)
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Three key components to this definition:
- an interpersonal process between one person and
a group
- can’t have ‘leaders’ without ‘followers’
- criterion for effective leadership = goal
achievement
What is Leadership?
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Leadership: guidance of others in their pursuits,
often by organizing, directing, coordinating,
supporting, and motivating their efforts.
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Reciprocal
Transactional
Transformational
Cooperative
Adaptive
Leadership Myths?
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Leadership is power (with people rather than
over people)
Leaders are born (but leaders are also “made”)
All groups have leaders (large groups tend to
require a leader)
People resist their leaders (most groups accept
the need for a leader)
Leadership myths (cont.)
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Leaders make or break their groups
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The “romance of leadership” exaggerates
the impact of a leader
Leaders do make a difference (e.g., sports
teams)
Who Will Lead?
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Perspectives on leadership emergence
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Trait Model: The great leader theory
Situational Model
Interactional Model: depends on the
leader, followers, and the group situation.
The Great Man Theory
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Early explanations of leadership studied the
“traits” of great leaders
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“Great man” theories (Gandhi, Lincoln, Napoleon)
Belief that people were born with these traits and
only the great people possessed them
The Great Man Theory
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Personal qualities of leaders
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Personality traits, such as extraversion,
conscientiousness, and openness.
Intelligence and emotional intelligence
(degree of social skill).
Expertise, skill, and experience.
Level of participation in discussion: the
“babble effect.”
Who Will Lead? (cont)
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Demographic background of leaders
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Height, weight, & age
Ethnicity
Sex: Bias against women (even thought women
possess more skills needed to be a successful
leader).
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Implicit leadership theories (ILTs): members
general beliefs about the qualities of leaders
Eagly’s social role theory: ILTs are not consistent
with intuitive expectations about men & women:
“think leader, think male”
Contingency Approaches
Contingency approaches:
approaches that seek to delineate the
characteristics of situations and
followers and examine the leadership
styles that can be used effectively
Fiedler’s contingency model: a
model designed to diagnose whether a
leader is task-oriented or relationshiporiented and match leader style to the
situation
Contingency Theory (Fiedler 1978)
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Leadership effectiveness is determined by
the interaction between the leader's personal
characteristics and the characteristics of the
situation
Leaders are classified as person-oriented or
task-oriented (which type will be more
effective depends on the leader's degree of
situational control)
Control depends on relationship between
leader/followers, the degree of task structure,
and the leader's authority (position power)
The LPC Scale
Measuring
Motivational
Style
Least Preferred Coworker
Scale, or LPC scale.
“Think of the person whom
you least like to work with”
LPC Scale
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He or she may be someone you work with
now or someone you knew in the past. This
coworker does not have to be the person you
like least but should be the person with whom
you had the most difficulty in getting a job
done.
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
LPC Scale
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High LPC leaders
most effective in
“moderately”
favorable situations
In moderate situations,
correlation between LPC
& Effectiveness is
POSITIVE
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Low LPC leaders
most effective in very
favorable or very
unfavorable situations
In highly favorable/
unfavorable situations,
correlation between
LPC & Effectiveness is
NEGATIVE
Contingency Theory (Fiedler 1978)
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The task-oriented leader will be
effective in extremely favorable or
extremely unfavorable situations
The person-oriented leader will be
more effective in moderately favorable
situations
Criticisms include most of research was
in the lab
Path-Goal Theory (House 1971)
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Path-goal theory focuses on the kinds of
leader behaviors that allow subordinates to
achieve personal and organizational goals
Four leadership styles can be adopted to
facilitate employee attainment of goals
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Directive
Supportive
Participative
Achievement-oriented
Path-Goal Situations and Preferred
Leader Behaviors
Situation
Leader Behavior
Impact on Follower
Followers lack
self-confidence
Supportive
Leadership
Ambiguous job
Directive
Leadership
Lack of job
challenge
AchievementOriented
Leadership
Set and strive for
high goals
Participative
Leadership
Clarifies followers’
needs to change
rewards
Incorrect
reward
Outcome
Increases confidence
to achieve work
outcomes
Clarifies path to
reward
Increased
effort;
improved
satisfaction
and
performance
Path-Goal Theory (House 1971)
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The most effective leadership style depends
on the situation and the characteristics of the
subordinates
Requires leader flexibility
Directive style works best with unskilled
workers
Supportive leadership works best with highly
skilled workers
Theory is difficult to test and operationalize
Situational Theory - Hersey and
Blanchard (1978)
 Effectiveness depends on the leader's task and relationship
behaviors.
 The Leadership Grid: Blake & Mouton assume that people
vary in their concern for others and in their concern for results
and that individuals who are high on both dimensions (9,9) are
the best leaders.
 Hersey and Blanchard’s extension of the Leadership Grid focusing
on the characteristics of followers as the important element of the
situation, and consequently, of determining effective leader behavior.
 Hersey and Blanchard suggest that groups benefit from leadership
that meshes with the developmental stage of the group.
Hersey and Blanchard’s
Situational Theory of Leadership
Follower
Characteristics
Appropriate Leader
Style
Low readiness level
Telling (high task-low
relationship)
Moderate readiness level
Selling (high task-high
relationship)
High readiness level
Very high readiness level
Participating (low task-high rel.)
Delegating (low task-low
relationship)
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
(LMX) (Graen & Schlieman 1978)
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Leader-member exchange theory (LMX)
focuses on how the leader-follower
relationship affects the leadership process
Subordinates are of two types: "in-group"
and "out-group"
In-group employees are viewed by the leader
as competent, trustworthy, and highly
motivated
Out-group employees are viewed as
incompetent, untrustworthy, and poorly
motivated
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
(LMX) (Graen & Schlieman 1978)
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Two leadership styles: supervision (based on
formal authority) and leadership (based on
persuasion)
Leaders use supervision with out-group
employees, and leadership with in-group
members
Leaders and in-group members establish
personal relationships leading to mutual
support and understanding
High-LMX relationship groups tends to
outperform low-LMX relationship groups
Transactional vs. Transformational
Leaders
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Transactional leaders focus on the social
interactions between leaders and followers
It is based on followers' perceptions of and
expectations about the leaders abilities
The behavior of transactional leaders
depends on what their followers think of
them
Transformational Leaders
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Transformational leaders are not
constrained by their followers'
perceptions but are free to act to
transform (change) their followers' views
They challenge and inspire with a sense
of purpose and excitement
They create a vision and communicate it
while accepting feedback and
suggestions
Elements of Transformational Leadership
Creating
a Strategic
Vision
Communicating
the Vision
Transformational
Leadership
Building
Commitment
Modeling
the Vision
Who is this?
Who is this?
Transformational Leaders…
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Do not accept the status quo
Create a graphic and compelling vision of the future
Act as role models
Are often referred to as “tough”
Energise and inspire others
Are said to be “charismatic”
Are very instrumental in times of turbulence / crises
Provide sense of individual consideration
Provide stimulation (intellectual and emotional)
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(James MacGregor Burns, 1978)
What do you think are the key
qualities of effective leaders?
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1. _____________________________
2. _____________________________
3. _____________________________
4. _____________________________
5. _____________________________
Leadership Styles
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Authoritarian leadership results when
leaders make all the decisions and tell
followers what to do
Authoritarian leadership works best when
situations require rapid and efficient job
performance
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Group performance suffers when leader is under
stress
Democratic leadership results when leaders
and followers discuss problems and make
decisions jointly
Authentic Leadership
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Owning one’s own personal experiences
(values, thoughts, emotions and beliefs) and
acting in accordance with one’s true self”
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Leader-follower relationships characterised
by:
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transparency, openness & trust
guidance towards worthy objectives
emphasis on follower development
(William Gardiner et al, 2005)
Moral Leadership
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“As a concept, leadership should mean a set
of values dedicated to promoting human
development for the common good of people
in a democratic environment, both at the
national and international levels”
(Adel Safty, 2003)
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“The modern leader is willing to take
responsibility without waiting for a request or
bureaucratic permission”
(Ronald Heifertz, 2003)
Leadership & Gender Differences
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Sex differences in leadership effectiveness:
 Women tend to adopt participative and
transformational styles of leadership
 Men are more likely to enact autocratic,
laissez-faire, and transactional styles.
Leadership and Emotions
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“An emotionally intelligent leader can
monitor his or her moods through selfawareness, change them for the better
through self-management, understand
their impact through empathy, and act
in ways that boost others’ moods
through relationship management”
(Goleman, Boyatzis & McKee, 2001)
Distributed Leadership
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“In the twenty-first century organization, we need to
establish communities where everyone shares the
experience of serving as a leader, not sequentially,
but concurrently and collectively. These I call
leaderful organizations.”
(Joseph Raelin, 2003, p. xi)
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“The model makes the case for the end of leadership
as we commonly know it—that is, rank-based
management—and introduces a method for
developing an organisation into a true society of
peers. I call this model the peer-based organization”.
(Jeffrey Nielsen, 2004, p. x)
Level 5 Leadership Hierarchy
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Level 5: Executive builds enduring greatness through a
paradoxical blend of personal humility and professional will
Level 4: Effective Leader catalyses commitment to vigorous
pursuit of a clear and compelling vision, stimulating higher
performance standards
Level 3: Competent Manager organises people and
resources toward the effective and efficient pursuit of
predetermined objectives
Level 2: Contributing Team Member contributes individual
capabilities to the achievement of group objectives and
works effectively with others in a group setting
Level 1: Highly Capable Individual makes productive
contributions through talent, knowledge, skills and good
work habits
(Jim Collins, 2001, Good to Great)