Gender
Two Primary Issues
1.The Cultural construction
of Gender
2.Gender Relations
Sex Versus Gender
 Sex refers to biological
differences,
 Gender refers to the
cultural construction of
male and female
characteristics.
 “The ways members of
the two sexes are
perceived, evaluated and
expected to behave.”
(what different cultures make of sex.)
Gender Boundaries
We demand that the
categories of male and female be
discrete
since gender is culturally
constructed the boundaries are
conceptual rather than physical
the boundaries are dynamic,
eg. now it is acceptable for men
to wear earrings.
Boundaries require markers
to indicate gender such as:
 Voice
 Physique
 Dress
 Behaviour
Hair style
 Kinetics
 Language use
Gender identity
Why is it important
How do we react when
someone seems to have
traits of each category?
social intercourse requires
that the interacting parties
know to which gender
category `the other' belongs
Felicita Vestvali
1824 - 1880
New York opera star who specialized in
singing contralto "trouser roles."
Is he a he? Or is he a she? Or is she a he?
How does your reaction to this image compare to
the earlier one of a woman dressed as a man?
Is there a double standard?
Women cross dress
all the time.
The difference is
perception.
Acceptance or
Rejection by society
The Relativity of Gender
If the categories `man' and `woman' are culturally constructed
what are the implications?
There can be no universal meaning to the category woman or
man.
What it means to be a man or a woman in a particular society
is relative to that society.
we do not have to be restricted to two genders
Cross-dressing often retains clues to the
underlying gender base and the resulting
image appears to exist somewhere
between the polarities of male and female
– containing elements of both – as if a
third gender had been created.
Third Genders
transsexual – gender/ sex
incongruent, “trapped in wrong body”
but with the gender identity of their
organs/sex change operation
 transvestite – dressing as other
gender, biological sex (cross-dresser)
 homosexual
 bisexual
 eunuch – castrated male
 hermaphrodite – both sets of
biological organs
Virgin?
Boy/Girl?
The Hijras of India and Pakistan
Hijra means “impotent ones” in Urdu
Some are born hermaphrodite, most are
born with a male body but with a feminine
gender identity and undergo voluntary
castration
Hijras wear colourful women’s clothes and
prefer men or other hijras as sexual partners
Perceived neither
as men nor women
but as a third gender
estimates range
from 50,000 to
5,000,000 in India.
A third gender has existed in the
Indian subcontinent from the earliest
Vedic period (2000 BCE), and
throughout the history of Hinduism
 They are also viewed as the cultural
descendants of the court eunuchs of
the Islamic Mughal Empire (15261858)
typically live together in a traditional
commune arrangement of five or
more "chelas" (disciples), supervised
by a "guru." (teacher)
Unrecognized in law as either male
or female they face extreme
discrimination in health, housing,
education, employment.
Hijras now earn their living as
beggars, prostitutes and by
dancing at carnivals, weddings
and births that require their
blessing
getting dressed for a job entertaining at a wedding
Hijras are both feared for their supposed
ability to place curses, and pitied for
being outcast children of Allah.
Believed to hold great power because of
Blessing a newborn
their worship of the Hindu Mother
Goddess - Mata Bahuchara
have recently modelled designer clothes
at upbeat fashion shows
And begun training as beauticians
faced with health concerns and
discrimination, many have become
politically active
A few hijras have been elected to high
political positions (1st Hijra MP elected 1999)
Berdache
George Catlin (1796-1872)
Dance to the Berdache
Drawn while on the Great Plains,
among the Sac and Fox Indians, the
sketch depicts a ceremonial dance to
celebrate the “two-spirit person”. The
men tease him but vie for his
recognition, which is deemed an honor.
Common among many native N. American groups
In everyday life the two-spirit male typically
would wear women’s clothes and do women’s work.
He would be accepted as “one of the girls.” He
might take a husband, or might have affairs with
several men.
Generally two-spirit males were not expected to
have sexual relations with women.
Multigendered people were/are usually
presumed to be people of power.
Because they have both maleness and
femaleness in one body, they are thought to
be able to ‘see’ with the eyes of both men
and women.
They are often called upon to be healers,
or mediators, or interpreters of dreams.
Besides their spiritual abilities, their
capacity for work also figured into the
high status of two-spirit people.
Even though a two-spirit male would
have taken on the gender identity of a
woman, he would still have the endurance
and strength of a man
We'wha (1849-96), a
Zuni berdache, lived
in New Mexico. He is
shown holding a
ritual vessel, dressed
in women's clothing.
 Western societies label third
sexes and genders a “problem”
and therefore feel compelled to
“fix” them
 Deification, ostracization, and
medicalization are common
coping strategies for societies
with strong gender dichotomies,
and are often based on
reproductive potential
These systems do not always have to be harmful to the third
gendered/sexed individual, but often are
As we move out of an age where reproduction was our main purpose
in life maybe we need to revise and expand our ideas about how
gender and sex roles work with each other
Is it possible to have a genderless
society?
Gender roles:
 tasks and activities a culture assigns to the sexes – expected ways of
behaving based on society’s definition of masculine and feminine
Gender stereotypes:
 oversimplified but strongly held ideas of the characteristics of men
and women.
Gender stratification:
an unequal distribution of rewards (socially valued resources, power,
prestige, and personal freedom) between men and women, reflecting
their different positions in social hierarchy – a division in society
where all members are hierarchically ranked according to gender
Gender ideology
A system of thoughts and values that legitimizes sex roles, statuses
and customary behaviour
Gender roles:
Gender Roles
Redd Evans and John
Jacob Loeb,
"Rosie the Riveter,"
(New York: Paramount
Music Corp., 1942
ROSIE THE RIVETER
All the day long,
Whether rain or shine,
She's a part of the assembly line.
She's making history,
Working for victory,
Rosie the Riveter.
Keeps a sharp lookout for sabatoge,
Sitting up there on the fuselage.
That little girl will do more than a male will do.
Rosie's got a boyfriend, Charlie.
Charlie, he's a Marine.
Rosie is protecting Charlie,
Working overtime on the riveting machine.
When they gave her a production "E,"
She was as proud as she could be.
There's something true about,
Red, white, and blue about,
Rosie the Riveter.
In the 1940s, women were
encouraged to help the war
effort by getting a job outside
the home. But it was family and
country rather than money,
status, or power that they were
encouraged to toil for .
Coke 1942
November 1942
“For whether she rears a family or
mans a rangefinder, a woman needs
the physical support of a good
foundation." and "Amongst other
munitions of war, Berlei are still
making foundations.".
1950s - mass
consumption in
high gear, TV ads
idealized the
woman as the wife
and homemaker,
and the man as
the bread winner.
But also the sex kitten
Cascade Dishwashing Detergent
1958 issue of Lady's Home Journal.
The man in this advertisement is
envious of his hostess' spotless drinking
glasses.
Rather than giving him advice on how
to get his glasses just as clear, she
advises him to tell his wife to use
Cascade.
The designers of this ad assume that
washing dishes is a woman's chore.
The roles are strictly defined; it never
crosses the woman's mind that Jean's
husband might have something to do
with dishwashing in his household.
1960s Educated women started exhibiting
their discontent with the status quo. Armed
with diplomas and new sophisticated birth
control methods, they demanded for the right
to have both career and family. The great
social change in the sixties allowed a variety
of depictions of women: sex kitten, nurturing
mother and independent working girl.
1970s Issues like woman's lib, ethnic
heritage, and critiques of capitalism.
Women are shown as independent only
when inexpensive items or simple
decisions were involved Advertisers
realized that not just white people were
buying products. Ethnic people were
placed in advertisements.
1980s independent woman
freedom
1990s 2000s
She is a "multifaceted success
machine”.
She is a nurturer and a seducer.
She is the twenty-four hour a day
woman, and she never sleeps.
Men are domesticated. Sex
objects
Images of women improving?
From June 1999 issue of Glamour
Part of an ad campaign that
accompanied the Women’s World Cup
“You pass on more to your children
and your grandchildren than your eye
color, . . . You provide the living
example that they can become more
than they ever thought they could.
Because you did.
“Just do it.”
This ad is striking
because it shows a
man in what is
typically thought of
as a woman’s role.
What does the fact
that he can open
the pail “without
passing out” say
about men?
What Men and Women Really Think
What do the models’
thoughts suggest?
What does this say
about the roles of
women? And of Men?
Crutchfield; Catalog for audio and video
equipment.
Gender Stereotypes
A woman walked into the kitchen to find her husband stalking
around with a fly swatter.
she: Intrigued, "How can you tell
she: "What are you doing?"
them apart?"
he: "Hunting Flies"
he: "3 were on a beer can, 2 were on
she: "Oh. Killing any?“
he: "Yep, 3 males, 2 Females," the phone."
Why are these cartoons humorous?
Be a Man
What does this statement mean? What comes to mind
• Men never cry
• Should not show emotion
• Not quitters
• Physically brave
• Independent
• Heroic and patriotic ideals
• Adventurous
• Shaving
• First day at work - earning a wage
• Initiations
• tough
• Courageous
• Drinking
• Physical strength
• Sex
Masculine Traits
Personality
Cognitive
Physical
Competitive
Rational
Rugged
Daring
Analytical
Muscular
Adventurous
Problem Solving
Phys. Strong
Aggressive
Quant. Skilled
Handsome
Courageous
Good Reasoning
Phys. Vigorous
Dominant
Mathematical
Brawny
self promotion & achievement
Do you Agree?
How has this Changed during the past few years?
“Men are Supposed to be Strong”
 What message does this ad
send to men? Women?
 Do we usually see more
scantily clad men or women?
 Is this what a man looks like?
Should men look like this?
Why or why not?
 Where do our ideals of beauty
come from?
Act like a Lady
What does this phrase mean? What comes to mind?
Feminine Traits
Personality
Cognitive
Physical
Affectionate
Imaginative
Cute
Sympathetic
Intuitive
Gorgeous
Gentle
Artistic
Beautiful
Sensitive
Creative
Pretty
Supportive
Expressive
Petite
Kind
Tasteful
Sexy
focus on others, community
How has this changed in the past few years?
Victoria’s Secret is Revealed
What does this ad suggest women
should look like?
Are these women, “Acting like
Ladies?” How / Why or why not?
The current ideal of female beauty
is difficult to achieve. The ideal being
a young Caucasian female, height
5'8"- 5'10", weighing 110-120 pounds
or less. Make-up, lighting and airbrushing are used to slim down the
images even more. Less than 10% of
the female population are genetically
destined to fit this ideal.
Victoria’s Secret, “Angels’ Collection”
Healthy Women
• What does this ad suggest
about women? About men?
• Why aren’t the men drinking
the orange juice?
Dove Evolution
Slob Evolution
Changing beauty standards
• In 1957, Miss America was
5'7" and weighed 150
pounds.
• In 2002 Miss America was
5'9 " and weighed 117
pounds
Marian
McKnight
Manning,
S.Carolina
Katie
Harman
Gresham,
Oregon
• Recent advertising trends are just as harmful to men
• Unforgiving & unrealistic images
• Men’s magazines encourage obsession with body
image, aging & sexual prowess
Gender Relations
Gender is an important dimension of social inequality
Gender stratification frequently takes the form of patriarchy
whereby men dominate women
Do women in our
society have a
second class status
relative to men?
If so How?
How do we measure
gender stratification?
How do we measure gender stratification?
.
Economics
We can also look
Politics
at the roles played
Religion
by women and the
Legal rights
value society places
on them roles
prestige
Autonomy
Generally:
Differential access
Education
to Wealth, Power,
Employment
and Prestige
Health
ideology
How deferential they are expected to be towards men.
Freedom to choose marriage partner, profession, and
conception. Etc.
Labor Force Participation for U.S. Women and Men, aged 25-55
1950-2000
Women’s increased
participation in paid work is a
central change in gender
relations over the last 50 years.
Labor force participation is
often seen as the prime indicator
(and cause) of changes in
women’s status.
Social theory often focuses on
women’s employment because
employment determines access
to resources and ability to make
independent decisions.
Gender Stratification
 unequal distribution of wealth,
power and prestige between men
and women
In the 1970s it was argued that
women are universally subordinate
to men in political, economic, and
public life
 i.e
cultures everywhere give man,
as a category opposed to women,
higher social value and moral worth.
 Is the secondary status of women a cultural universal?
Women’s Power in Global Perspective
Are women universally or always subordinate to men?
Explanations for the Universal subordination of Women
1. The biological argument
women's status relative to men is
natural and due to biological differences:
Men’s testosterone naturally leads them
to be more aggressive Women’s oestrogen
makes them more compliant
Women are biologically programmed to
bear and raise children which affects
their economic roles
Can these differences explain male
aggression
• juvenile delinquency, for violent
crime in general
• the biological basis of warfare
• the political and economic
dominance of men
1. Biologically men are physically stronger than women
2. therefore this results in a sexual division of labour with
men doing the harder work
3. In other words biology influences behaviour
4. implies that the relationship between biology and social life
is one of cause and effect.
If biology explains the
political and economic
dominance of men
must we not simply
accept that fact?
So much for that theory --- in many societies women are the
real labourers
biological differences cannot provide a universal basis for
social definitions of `man' and `woman'
2. Envy theory
 men may have political control but women have the
power of life - giving birth
 Men may arrange or exchange legal rights over
women's offspring, but the power of creating life and
sustaining it by breast milk remains beyond their
grasp.
 i.e. men are envious
 again linked to biology
3. Psychological
• boys try to dominate others
• girls comply with parents
• again linked with biology
But so what
it is true, generally men are physically stronger than women
• this may account for some of the division of labour
But nothing in the biological differences between the sexes can
account for the secondary status of women
what is important is the different values placed on being a man or
a woman or on the work that is done
An alternative explanation is that there must
be some cultural or sociological regularities that
account for male dominance.
the inequalities are due to the fact that societies
place different values on biological sex
and apparently universally value female sex
lower than male sex
Children's socialization or
Gender Typing
 both sexes must learn
behavior that is deemed
appropriate to their gender
 girls from their mother's
model
 a boy with his father
Female is to domestic as male is to public
The domestic/public opposition is ultimately derived from
woman's role as mother and rearer of children.
i.e. identification
with the domestic
domain is seen as a
consequence of their
role as mothers
has tended to limit
them to certain social
functions
i.e. with the rearing
of children
Since women are confined
to the domestic context,
their main sphere of activity
becomes familial relations
 i.e. women's roles centres
around the hearth and
home.
 domestic are those
institutions and activities
organized around motherchild groups
 men, however, operate in the political and public domain
of social life.
 they are free to form those broader associations that we
call `society'
 Men thus become identified with society and the public
interest
The domestic sphere is
considered less important
than the public domain
 Since women are
associated with the domestic
sphere and men the public,
women are of lower and
men of higher value.
Is the domestic sphere devalued in our society?
 in Western society the family and the domestic are
conceived in opposition to the public sphere of life,
business, work and politics
 but this cannot be considered
universal
 this domestic/public association
it appears is a Western construct.
These ideas derived from Western thought has been
imposed on other cultural situations where it does is not
always apply
The Hagen of New Guinea
 do
associate women with the
domestic realm and men with the
public sphere
pursuing
socially valued goals
is acting like a man
 pursuing individual family
interests is acting like a woman
 but these types of behaviour
are open to both men and women
 the association of the domestic
with something demeaning or
less than social is not a feature of
Hagen thought.
Margaret Mead
Sex and Temperament in Three
Primitive Societies (1935)
Male and Female (1949).
sought to discover extent
temperamental differences between
the sexes were culturally determined
rather than innate biological
 Mead found a different pattern of
male and female behavior in each of
the cultures she studied, all different
from gender role expectations in the
United States at that time.
The gentle mountain-dwelling Arapesh
 Arapesh child-rearing responsibilities evenly
divided among men and women - both nurturing
The fierce cannibalistic Mundugumor
a natural hostility exists between all members of
the same sex. Mundugumor fathers and sons, and
mothers and daughters were adversaries - both
aggressive
The “graceful” headhunters of Tchambuli,
 While men were preoccupied with arts,
gossiping, hair, the women had the real power,
controlling fishing and manufacturing,
Relativist Position
in the non-western world we find cultural ideologies that
 subordinate and exclude women,
 extract their labour and child-bearing and rearing and
 place them under the legal control of their fathers, brothers
and husbands
 ideologies which are supported as vehemently by women as
by men.
Their religion may consign
women to domestic roles and
labour to enhance male
prestige
But women portray themselves
in terms of virtue and duty.
men and women, may be
equally committed to a system of
rules and meanings
 even though it gives power
and advantage to some of them
and subordinates others.
Can we legitimately step
outside this system and view it as
an ideology without simply
imposing our ideology on them.
In other words even though we can see the
injustice of the system which polarize the sexes
and demean women
It does not mean that women live in these
societies with the strain, conflict, or negative
self-images one would expect them to entail
Women are actors
 women may themselves become important
political actors who
 influence the public political affairs of men
from behind the scenes
 pursue strategies of controlling labour and
prestige within the constraints of the system.