LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT THEORIES
“What are the qualities which give us authority, which enable us to exercise some charge
or control over others with “authority”? It is not the charge or position itself, for we often
see persons in a position of authority who have no authority at all; on the other hand we
sometimes see persons in the very humblest positions who exercise a great influence or
authority on all around them (Nightingale, 1867).
(about the person, not the position) leadership vs management
DEFINITIONS
•
Leadership
– Influence! (one word to describe leadership)
(art of getting someone else to do something done because he wants to do it)
(Silverita the janitor)
• Management
– Functions (Fayol, 1925)
• Planning (ready for flu season)
• Directing (breaking up conflict, delegating)
• Organizing (who works night shift this Saturday)
• Controlling (discipline, correct people, performance appraisal, quality measurement)
– Implies a “formal position”.
(up until industrial revolution & you had a business it was a family business… managers weren’t
needed until organizations became so big that the owner couldn’t do everything)
•
Characteristics of Managers and Leaders
Managers: “I need to get through my in box by the end of the day’, worried about their own
place
Leaders: more futuristic & tend to think in the long term, thinking on a grand scheme, embrace
change rather than resist it.
EARLY THEORIES
• “Great Man” Theory
– “Leaders born, not made” (monarchy… people born into the right family… leadership skills
can’t be taught)
• Trait Theories
– focus on innate physical and personality characteristics… similar to “great man” theory.
An ugly short bald man will probably never become president because they don’t “look”
the part. Certain traits can be developed, but they focus on people that already have the
traits. “you can’t be a leader unless you are an extrovert” These were popular until the
??? Also, because someone is a leader in one situation, that doesn’t make them a leader
in other areas. Stogdale? “people who are leaders, willingness to accept consequences
of their own consequences, willing to absorb some interpersonal stress for the sake of the
group, original in problem solving… big thing for them was self confidence, they also tend
to be sociable. Eventually, determined that most traits can be developed.
• Scientific Management (Fred Taylor, 1890-1910)
– Focus on increased productivity /efficiency through the use of intelligent work
design and economic incentives
“systematic soldiering” workers doing minimum work to keep from getting fired. One of the first
guys to try & make work easier…. Ergonomic designs, flow sheets to “work smarter, not harder”
Called workers “economic animals” thought they had to perform based on their own self interest
(the money they made) Invented “piece work”… paid by the piece, not by the hour.
BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
Focus more on what leaders DO than what traits they possess
– Lewin, Lippett, & White; 1939
• Authoritarian (or autocratic): micromanagers, motivate through coercion or threat of
punishment, usually have downward communication only, they don’t want the opinion of the
people at the bottom, lots of status signals to tell the difference between the people at the
bottom & top.
• Democratic: like constructive criticism, motivate through ego awards & gold stars, pats on the
back, like communication that goes both up and down. Very time consuming.
• Laissez faire: little or no criticism, no feedback, bad for a novice to be in this situation,
expectations are not clear, can end up feeling abandoned. Sometimes works well with a group
of people that are very self motivated & highly educated.
– Theory X / Theory Y (McGregor; 1960’s). McGregor felt that managers held one
of two beliefs about workers: did not believe workers were “economic animals”
• Theory X - workers are lazy, can’t be trusted, and must be motivated through the threat of
punishment
• Theory Y - Work can be rewarding in and of itself. People can be trusted. They are selfmotivated and willing to work hard.
HUMAN RELATIONS/MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES
•
Human Relations (Mayo, 1920’s) professor at univ of Chicago… environment in
which the people work effects the outcome of the work.
Changed lighting in a workplace & the production increased… changed it back, it still
increased… it was because people paid attention to the workers.
–
Hawthorne Studies/Hawthorne Effect ( somehow you can never get a pure result because
the insertion of the researcher somehow changes the results)
• Motivational Theories
– Hertzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, 1966
Distinction between satisfaction & dissatisfaction: just because you are not dissatisified doesn’t
mean you are satisified.
• Hygiene Factors: prevention of being dissatisified. Adequate salary,
appropriate supervision, good interpersonal relationships, safe & tolerable
working conditions
• Motivation factors: to do w/ our need to grow psychologically. Meaningful work,
opportunities for advancement & achievement, appropriate responsibility,
adequate recognition
On site child care given, more parental leave, flex working hours,
– Maslow, 1970
• Hierarchy of Needs:
• Situational/Contingency Theories (Mary Parker Follett, early1900’s)
–
Leadership style should be consciously tailored to
•
Characteristics of workers
•
Nature of task to be accomplished
• The amount of power the leader has.
(situational leadership, style needs to be tailored to the situation)
INTERACTIONAL THEORIES
Focus on the relationship between leader and follower as a determinant of leadership
effectiveness.
• Participative Management (Argyris, 1964) believed “managerial
domination” causes workers to be disheartened. Thought you should be
nice to workers & allow workers to participate in decision making.
• Theory Z (Ouchi, 1981): Japanese mgmt. Quality circles. Production line
stops & people discuss what would make the situation better. Flow
charts, cutting out unnecessary steps. He added theory Z to
Macgregor… to have a truly productive staff you have to give them
decision making to fix situations. Also advocated slower promotions.
They get slower promotions but “lifetime employment”. Holistic
concern… gyms for employees… let them participate & really take care
of the employees as well.
• Total Quality Management (“TQM”; Deming, 1980’s)
TRANSACTIONAL / TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
•
Burns, 1978; Bass & Avolio;1993 (extensive taped interviews from south American
companies that were flourishing) 2 forms of leadership: transactional &
transformational
– Transactional leadership: believe the followers do not have the same
goals as the leaders.
• Contingent reward (key concept): carrots & sticks to do what they want you to
do. If you do this project, I will do _____ for you. Work is seen as a series of
transactions.
• “Management by Exception”: Never see your manager unless something goes
wrong. Can be passive management by exception: you see them when you
are caught doing something wrong.
Active management: they wander around looking for something being done wrong
– Transformational leadership
• Idealized Influence – Charisma: leader engages in behavior that gets the job
done AND the workers look up to that person. Must take risks, consider
followers needs ahead of your own. Exemplify’s what your worker thinks is
important. Make you feel like you are part of something bigger than
themselves. People see their work as an expression of themselves.
• Inspirational Motivation: leaders are able to elicit a commitment to
organizational goals. (plaques that have eagles w/ an inspirational phrase at
the bottom) emotional appeal.
• Intellectual Stimulation: actively soliciting the workers to solve problems. Novel
approaches to work performance
• Individualized Consideration: listen & pay attention to the needs of the
workers… try to learn who people are.
Shared values to which the worker can buy in
Fully committed & highly moral
Function as a cheerleader & a coach “encourages the heart”
Use influence rather than coercion
Measure their effectiveness by their followers achievements
Have charisma
Results in behavior that goes beyond the expected
Clearly picture a desired future & inspire followers to see the dream
Good: highly consistent w/ what is wanted as a leader today, recognizes the complex interaction
between leaders & followers.
Some reviewes say some of these traits can’t be taught.
Some people think it is easier to be a transformational leader from the top…
Has the potential to be abused…. Whose vision & values are we following.
Charisma can be destructive…
Servant Leadership (shares w/ transformational leadership)
(Greenleaf, 1977)
Leader put themselves last behind the followers & clients (AT & T)
• Ability to listen on a deep level, and understand: good listener.
• Ability to keep an open mind and hear without judgment
• Ability to think before reacting
• Choosing words carefully so as not to damage those being led
• Setting goals and pointing the direction without giving orders
• Use of foresight and intuition
• Ability to serve, help, and teach –before leading