Practicing Leadership: Principles
and Applications
Chapter 4: The Evolution of
Western Leadership
• Trust men and they will be true to you; treat
them greatly and they will show themselves to be
great.”
 Ralph Waldo Emerson
Scientific Management
• Scientific Management: an approach to management that
focuses on dividing large projects into smaller tasks and providing
training and incentives for workers to achieve these tasks at a high
level, thereby increasing production and efficiency.
• Frederick Taylor’s Scientific management calls for:
▫ A “science” for every job, including standardized work flow and
work conditions.
▫ Carefully selected workers with the right ability to do each job.
▫ Careful training with proper incentives.
▫ Clear planning by managers.
Scientific Management
 Henri Fayol’s Principles of Organizations:
Specialization (division of labor)
Authority with responsibility
Unity of command
Subordination of individual interests
Centralization
Chain of command (lines of authority)
Lifetime jobs (for good workers)
Discipline
Order
Unity of direction
Remuneration
Equity
Initiative
Esprit de corps
Scientific Management
• If Taylor takes the “bottom up” approach and Fayol takes
the “top down” approach, Max Weber is a combination
of the two.
• Weber’s characteristics of bureaucracy :
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fixed jurisdictional areas generally ordered by rules
regular activities distributed in a fixed manner
command authority distributed in a stable manner
method for fulfilling these regular activities with only qualified
persons employed in the activities.
Second Wave Management
• The Hawthorne Experiments (1927-1932): studies of
motivation and worker-management relations
• Hawthorne Effect: a finding that providing greater
attention to workers and their needs typically results in
increased productivity
Operations Management and Quality
Control
• Operations Management: The efficient and effective
implementation of the policies and tasks necessary to satisfy a firm's
customers, employees, and management.
• Quality Movement: the synthesis of "hard" efforts to improve
work performance, such as scientific management and quantitative
methods, with the idea that organizations should be viewed as
complete systems.
Trait Theory
• The “Great Man” theory
• Kouzes and Posner (2008) found that the top four traits that
workers valued in their managers were:
▫ Honesty
▫ Forward-looking perspective
▫ Inspiring
▫ Competent
Research
• Interpersonal Factors
▫ Emotional stability
▫ Self confidence
▫ Manage conflict
• Cognitive Factors
▫ Intelligence>problem solving and decision making
• Administrative Factors
▫ Planning and organizational skills
▫ Knowledge of work being performed
Trait Theory
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
• Kurt Lewin’s behavioral theories of leadership:
▫ The Autocratic or Directive leader – tends to centralize authority,
dictate work methods, make unilateral decisions, and limit employee
participation.
▫ The Democratic or Participative leader – involves employees in
decision making, delegates authority, encourages participation and uses
feedback to coach employees.
▫ The Laissez-Faire leader – gives employees complete freedom to ask
about decisions and to complete their work as they see fit.
Authoritarian
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Sets goals individually
Engages primarily in one-way, downward communication
Controls discussions of followers
Sets policy and procedures unilaterally
Dominates interaction
Personally directs the completion of tasks
Provides infrequent positive feedback
Rewards obedience and punishes mistakes
Exhibits poor listening skills
Uses conflict for personal gain
Democratic
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Involves followers in setting goals
Engages in two-way, open communication
Facilitates discussion with followers
Solicits input regarding determination of policy and procedures
Focuses interaction
Provides suggestions and alternatives for the completion of tasks
Provides frequent positive feedback
Rewards good work and uses punishment only as a last resort
Exhibits effective listening skills
Mediates conflict for group gain
Laissez-Faire
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Allows followers free rein to set their own goals
Engages in noncommittal, superficial communication
Avoids discussion with followers to set policy and procedures
Avoids interaction
Provides suggestions and alternatives for the completion of tasks
only when asked to do so by followers
Provides infrequent feedback of any kind
Avoids offering rewards or punishments
May exhibit either poor or effective listening skills
Avoids conflict
The Ohio State and Michigan State
Studies
• Ohio State’s Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire found
two primary leadership dimensions:
▫ Consideration
▫ Initiating structure
• Michigan State’s Studies found that leaders’ behaviors could be
analyzed in terms of:
▫ Employee-centered behavior
▫ Job-centered behavior
The Leadership Grid
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
Model
• Effective leadership practice as based on the interplay of the
following three dimensions:
▫ The amount of guidance and direction a leader gives
▫ The amount of social/emotional support a leader provides
▫ The readiness level that followers exhibit related to the particular
leadership task at hand
• Leaders can respond to their employees’ need for direction in
one of four ways:
▫ directing, coaching, supporting, and delegating.
House’s Path-Goal Theory
• The leader must assess followers based on five
expectancy factors:
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Followers’ valences
Follower’s instrumentality
Follower’s expectancies
Equity of rewards
Accuracy of role perceptions
Fiedler’s Leader-Match Theory
• Predicted leader’s effectiveness based on two factors:
▫ Leader’s attributes
▫ Leader’s situational control
• Least Preferred Coworker Scale
• Leader Situation has 3 dimensions:
▫ Position power
▫ Task structure
▫ Leader-Member relationship
• Experience important
Leader-Member Exchange
• Leaders choose who will be in the in-group based on:
▫ Possession of characteristics similar to those of the leader
▫ Possession of a higher degree of competence than members of the outgroup
▫ Possession of higher levels of extraversion than out-group members
Servant Leadership
• According to Greenleaf, servant leaders:
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Listen first so they may understand a situation
Develop their intuition
Lead by persuasion
Conceptualize the reforms they seek and lift others up
Empower by creating opportunities and alternatives for those
being served
Transformational Leadership
 Transformational leadership: based on mutually beneficial
relationships between leaders and followers whereby the leader is
seeking to promote growth and real change.
 Transactional leadership: a barter system whereby the leader
seeks to meet the needs of a follower and vice-versa. Improved work or
societal conditions are not the focus of the exchange.
 Critical transformational leadership: an approach to leadership
in which the leader is challenged to view information critically, to elicit
and value all voices, and to act in a manner that promotes a more just
society
Leadership Skills of the Future
1.
Leadership is a relationship, as opposed to the property
of an individual.
2.
Leadership entails change.
3.
Leadership can be done by anyone, not only those who
are designated as leaders.