Article Review Chart
Distance Learning and Gifted Students: What are the benefits?
Reference
Purpose
Research
Participants
Questions
Methods
Data Analysis
Limitations/
Reliability/
Validity
Results/
Findings
Implications
Cifuentes, L.,
Murphy, K., &
Davis, T. (1998).
Cultural
Connections:
Promoting SelfEsteem,
Achievement, and
Multicultural
Understanding
through Distance
Learning.
http://search.ebscoh
ost.com
Explored the
effectiveness
of distance
learning for
adolescents in
promoting
self-esteem,
achievement,
and
multicultural
understanding
.
In what ways,
if any, did the
distance
learning
experiences
affect 1)selfesteem, 2)
school
achievement
and
3)multicultur
al
understanding
24 teachers and
the 24 students
of 2 of those
teachers, 2
school
counselors, 3
administrators,
and 2 university
faculty at Texas
A&M.
Participants were
chosen from
three different
schools (14
randomly placed
8th graders and
10 gifted 5th
graders)
Mixed methods
were used. The
study relied on
ethnographic, case
study methods.
Content analyses of
each of the data
sources were
conducted . Scores
on three school
benchmarking
reading tests were
examined.
None was reported.
They found that student's selfesteem, academic
achievement, and multicultural
understanding increased in
response to Cultural
connections. Four overarching
themes emerged from the data:
growth, empowerment,
comfort with technology, and
mentorship. Students'
increased academic
achievement was indicated by
comparing scores on the
benchmark reading tests.
This project demonstrates that
in networked classrooms
students can connect with
distant others to learn about
and from their perspectives
and to increase their
multicultural understandings.
In addition, distance
technologies can foster team
teaching across cultures and
geographical distances.
Olszewski-Kubilius
P, Lee S. Gifted
Adolescents' Talent
Development
through Distance
Learning. Journal
for the Education of
the Gifted [serial
online]. January 1,
2004;28(1):7-35.
Available from:
ERIC, Ipswich, MA.
Accessed October
21, 2009.
The study
was designed
to investigate
how
academically
talented
students use a
universitybased
distance
learning
program, its
role in their
education and
talent
development,
and their
experience
with distance
education.
Why do talented
students take
distancelearning
courses, and for
what do they use
distance
education? do
they take courses
to supplement
their school
program? to
accelerate? For
personal
enrichment?
Were students
satisfied with
their distanceeducation
course? What
were sources of
satisfaction and
dissatisfaction?
How do students
perform in the
distance-learning
Students in grades
6-12 who had
participated in the
LearningLink
program by taking
either high school
honors-level
courses or
Advanced
Placement courses
during the past 4
(honors-level)
years or 2 years
(AP classes.)
There were 99
honors level and
97 AP students
who took classes
through distance
learning.
Mixed Methods
were used.
Two
questionnaires,
LearnningLinks
Course Evaluation
and AP Course
Evaluation, were
used for this study.
Each consisted
primarily of
multiple choice
items, but each also
contained items
using a 4-point
Likert-type scale.
Each questionnaire
consisted of 19
items.
Descriptive statistics were
computed for all multipleoption
items in the survey, and
students’ comments for
some open-ended
items were analyzed using
the constant comparative
method typically
employed for qualitative
research analysis
(Hutchinson,
1990). First, all of the
open-ended comments
made by students
were analyzed line by line.
Next, several categories
(e.g., program
seemed the best, too much
philosophy for English
class, helpful
teacher, different
communication with
instructors, a lot of
homework,
lived close to Northwestern
Since this study
included only students
who participated in the
CTD distance-learning
program, no
comparisons were
possible
between students who
took the distancelearning classes versus
those who took classes
in a more traditional
format. These
investigations
would help to ascertain
the unique features of
online and
distance-learning
classes and how these
features potentially
impact
learning. Studies also
need to focus on
Overall, this study showed that
students’ interests in the subject
area, a desire to enrich and
accelerate themselves, and the
unavailability
of advanced courses at an
appropriate time in their home
schools were the major reasons
for enrolling in the CTD distance
learning
courses to take either Advanced
Placement or honors-level
courses. For students who took
the AP courses, getting credit for
college was another important
reason for taking the distancelearning
class.
An interesting finding of this
study was that a significant
number of students took AP
courses via distance learning for
their own personal interest and
The Article did not indicate
specific implications.
classes and on
subsequent AP
exams? How are
distance
education
courses received
by student'
schools? Do the
students receive
high school
credit for them?
do they appear
on school
transcripts? Are
their grades
factored into
their GPA's?
University, etc.) were
created
based on an initial coding
process.
Wallace, P. (2005)
Distance education for
gifted students:
leveraging technology
to expand academic
options. Retrieved
from ERIC database on
August 30, 2009.
To examine the
effectiveness and
varieties of
distance
education and
the technologies
that support
them.
Specifically to
examine the role
of distance
education as a
supplement for
the
gifted/talented
students. To
examine a model
called The
Center for
Talented Youth.
What benefits
can be gained
from distance
education to
create rich
learning
environments
for gifted
students
through
supplementin
g the
educational
setting rather
than
replacing it.
The participants
involved in the
study were
students enrolled
in the CTY
program at Johns
Hopkins
University.
Enrollment
patterns were
analyzed as well
as student
evaluation of the
distance
education
program.
Materials were not
detailed in the
article but there
were tables with
survey results and
comparison charts.
Wallace, P. (2009).
Distance Learning for
Gifted Students:
Outcomes for
Elementary, Middle,
and High School Aged
Students. Journal for
the Education of the
Gifted, 32(3), 295-320.
http://search.ebscohost.
com
The purpose of
the study was
to explore the
effectiveness
of distance
learning for
gifted students
along several
different
dimensions and
to compare the
outcomes for
students in
different age
The study was
intended to
examine, both
as a whole and
by age group,
the reasons
gifted students
enroll in
distance
education, how
they evaluate
their academic
experience and
instructors,
Participants were
drawn from the
students enrolled
in the Johns
Hopkins
University Center
for Talented Youth
(CTY) distance
education program
who submitted
online course
evaluation forms
between July1,
2005, and March
Mixed methods
were used to gather
data.
A 5-point Likert
scale from 1 (very
dissatisfied) to 5
(very satisfied) was
used for the parents
on the suitability of
the course.
Students used a 5point
comparing different
online
and distance-education
formats to determine
what features are
most supportive of
learning for adolescent
students. Also, having
information on the
success of students in
various distanceeducation
formats would be a
contribution to the
literature and could
guide educators’ future
efforts on behalf of
these students.
enrichment, and many of these
students also prepared for AP
exams on their own at home,
aside
from the CTD distance-learning
courses. This suggests that
students
supplemented their distancelearning courses with additional
independent study, attesting to
their exceptional motivation,
interest, and achievement
orientation
An analysis of the program
details the enrollment patterns
and student satisfaction with
this particular model of
distance education. The
specific procedures were not
discussed at length only
details of the results.
Information for the
study included (a)
responses to the course
evaluation forms
submitted by the
students, (b) responses
submitted by their
parents for the same
course, (c) demographic
data contained in the
student information
system, and (d) final
course grade. The
information addresses
A limitation on the
conclusions regarding any
differences between the
age groups in attitudes or
outcome is that age group
is partially confounded
with instructor, course,
software, previous
experience with
technology and distance
learning, and other
variables.
It is possible that younger
children are somewhat less
critical and show a slight
Overall, this study suggests that
distance education can be an
effective approach to accelerate or
enrich the academic opportunities
available to gifted students in
grades k-12. Distance learning is
frequently included as on the
options for introduction
acceleration and enrichment into
the curriculum for gifted students,
yet research on its effectiveness
for this population has been
limited. for home-schooled
students, for example, distance
Based on the results of this study,
gifted students at the elementary,
middle, and high school levels all
benefit from distance learning.
Nevertheless, the area has
received little research attention,
and many questions remain about
how to implement it, how to tailor
the material to provide
appropriate levels of challenge to
each gifted student, and how to
integrate it within a school setting
Also, more research is needed to
explore individual differences and
Dixon, F., Cassady,
J., Cross, T., &
Williams, D. (2005).
Effects of
Technology on
Critical Thinking
and Essay Writing
Among Gifted
Adolescents.
Journal of
Secondary Gifted
Education, 16(4),
180-189.
http://search.ebscoh
ost.com
groups.
how parents
evaluate the
course's
suitability, how
well they
perform in
terms of final
grade, and how
the distance
learning course
affects their
interest in the
subject.
30, 2007. the
sample included
690 students, (age
5.23 to 17.67,
M=12.75,
SD=2.18; 56.5%
girls, 45.5% boys).
More than 94%
resided in the
United States, and
the remainder
registered from 16
other countries.
Liker scale from 15 (strongly
disagree to strongly
agree) in
responding to
several questions
assessing their
perceptions of the
instructor.
several dimensions,
including (a) reasons
for enrolling, (b)
appropriateness of the
course for the student,
(c) instructional
effectiveness, (d
software effectiveness,
(e) overall satisfaction,
and (f) student
outcomes as measured
by performance and
interest in the subject
after completing the
course.
response bias toward
overall high ratings.
However, their
significantly lower rate ins
for software usability
would argue against this
hypotheses.
Another feature of the
program under study is that
while the courses may
include some synchronous
interactions, such as shared
use of an internet
whiteboard, most
interaction occurs
asynchronously. Results
from program that contain
more synchronous
interactions may different
from the findings in this
study.
learning provides a means to
introduce advanced studies in
subjects outside the expertise of
the students' parents or tutors.
Distance learning also can play an
important role in school settings
as well, particularly to alleviate
scheduling conflicts and to
provide access to courses that are
not offered in the school. This
study indicates that younger
gifted students can benefit from
distance learning opportunities as
least as much as older students,
provided their needs are taken
into account. Software usability
should be a key concern for
younger students and adequate
technical support.
identify students who possess the
level of readiness to thrive in a
distance learning environment in
terms of their capacities for time
management, technological
literacy, writing skills, and even
keyboard skills. Qualitative
research, in addition to the
quantitative research presented in
this paper, will be very useful in
better understanding how
individual students interact with
their remote instructors and their
online learning materials and how
they, their parents, and their
teachers perceive the pros and
cons of online learning.
The goal of our
project was to
explore the
impact of
word
processing
technologies
on writing in
response to
guided
prompts. The
investigation
was restricted
to writing
samples that
were produced
in one attempt
(no revision
stages
enabled), much
as would be
seen in
standard
essays.
Specifically,
we sought to
answer two
questions: First,
is
the rubric
used to
evaluate
critical thinking
scores both
valid and useful
in measuring
the construct?
Second, what
differences are
noted in
student writing
samples based
on the gender
of the writer
and the mode
of creating the
written work
(technologysupported vs.
handwritten)?
Participants
included 99
students (39 males
and 60
females) who
attend a legislativesupported
residential
academy for
science,
mathematics, and
humanities. The
mean age of the
participants at entry
to the Academy
was
16 years. Located
on a university
campus in the
Midwest,
this residential
Academy was
established in
1990
Critical thinking was
assessed using
the Watson-Glaser
Critical Thinking
Appraisal (Watson
& Glaser, 1980
Students took
alternate forms of this
test two times: in the
fall of their junior year
(2001), and again at
the end of their
junior year (spring,
2002). Form A of the
Watson-Glaser
is composed of 80
test items following 16
scenarios. All of
the items are
objective questions in
which the test taker
selects the answer.
There are five content
areas: Inference,
Recognition of
Assumptions,
Deduction,
Interpretation,
and Evaluation of
Arguments. A student
receives a single
score based on the
completion of the test.
The internal
consistency reliability
(coefficient alpha) for
the measure
Two raters were trained
to score both
administrations
of the essays. Raters
were two English
instructors at the
school who were
interested in working on
the project and
were experts in writing
and in assessing writing.
Training
occurred on four
occasions. At the first
session, the rubric
was explained and
examples of each level
of the rubric
were presented to the
raters. They read the
essays and
asked questions to
clarify their notions of
what each level
represented. Then they
practiced coding essays.
Each rater
coded 10 essays and
scores were compared.
They practiced
on three different
occasions after the initial
explanatory
session. The goal was to
establish interrater
reliability at
.70 on the practice
Therefore, the data
analyses demonstrated
that girls
produced more
handwritten content in
the initial writing
sample, when all
students were required
to handwrite their
responses. The change
scores demonstrated a
significant effect of the
use of computers on
writing production
(words and sentences)
regardless of gender,
and a small effect was
evident for writing
sample rubric ratings.
Examination
of the means presented
in Tables 4 and 5
reveals a trend
in which use of the
computer (available
only in WS-2)
helped adolescent
boys generate more
text in response
to the writing prompts,
bringing the amount of
written
work in line with their
female counterparts.
Reviewing the
means in Table 4 also
illustrates the dramatic
A distinct limitation of this study
is the number of
participants. Other limitations
include our lack of data
on computer expertise, and the
interest of the students in
writing, computers, or other
specific topics. In addition,
the rubric used was not a
strong measure of critical
thinking in general in this study.
However, the results
certainly emphasize the
importance of format when
requiring students, particularly
boys, to write.
The results yielded some
interesting considerations. First,
the Dixon (1996) rubric
used for coding and scoring
essays was useful in reveling
limited aspects of critical
thinking. This makes sense
because deduction requires one to
establish or identify a
general idea and then support it
with examples (Ennis,
1989) and inference requires
making connections in ideas.
Well-thought-out essays do this
exact process: that is, they
focus on a thesis, which is then
supported by examples to
elucidate the thesis.
Second, when gifted boys used
word processors to
respond to a writing prompt, they
composed better essays
than when they were required to
handwrite them. Our
study indicated that on Essay 1,
when the students were
required to handwrite their work,
the boys produced an
average of 229 words. On the
other hand, on Essay 2,
those with access to computers
produced an average of
420 words on their essays
compared to 265 words from
boys who composed handwritten
essays on Essay 2. This
83% increase in word production
Katz, Y.
(2002).
Attitudes
affecting
The aim of
the present
study was to
examine
whether the
In the present
study the
relationship
between two
distance
Sample
The research
sample consisted
of 67 first year
students who
was .85; test-retest at
a 3-month interval
was reported at
.73; alternate forms
reliability was
reported at .75. In our
analyses, we have
also examined the
raw scores for each of
the five content areas
to provide more finegrained examination of critical
thinking skills.
Essays. Critical
thinking was also
measured in essays
gathered from the
participants at two
different administrations. The first
essay prompt was
administered to all
juniors as an entry
essay at the
beginning of their
junior
year. The second
essay prompt was
administered during
the
fall semester of their
senior year (2002). All
students in the
study composed their
first essay in
handwritten form. On
the second essay,
some students were
randomly assigned
to a computer
condition and
composed their
essays on
the computer. Both
prompts were based
on an essay by
Katherine Anne
Porter. English
teachers at the school
selected the initial
reading.
essays before beginning
to rate the
Subsequent training
sessions involved practicing coding essays,
checking scores for
congruence, and
discussing the reasons
for lack of agreement.
When training was
completed, and
interrater reliability was
established at .70, the
raters independently
scored the essays for
each administration,
naïve to the identity of
the students
creating the essay. For
any essay where the two
primary
raters did not reach
initial agreement, the
rubric creator
and trainer for the two
raters coded the essays.
In this way,
all essays were
assessed with the same
rating by two raters.
Initial interrater reliability
estimates for the two
primary
raters for the data in this
study was .60. To
overcome the
reduced consistency
found in initial rating, the
rubric
creator and trainer
coded all essays that did
not receive
matching scores. In all
cases, this expert rating
matched
one of the initial codes;
therefore, all reported
values are
based on converging
values from two
independent raters.
Instrument
A research
questionnaire
designed to
examine
Procedure
At the beginning of
the 1999–2000
academic year the
students were
difference
on the essay rubric
scores when comparing
the boys in the
handwritten and word
processing conditions.
Given the
primary interest in this
study on the effect of
computer
applications on writing
quality, an independent
samples
t-test of boys’ writing
sample rubric ratings
for WS-2
was conducted to
compare the
handwriting and word
processing conditions.
The difference was
statistically significant
and in favor of the
word processing group
in the word processing
condition may be attributed to the
ease and speed in writing
that they were able to achieve in
the same amount of time.
That is, it is quite likely that
the computer-experienced
students in this population
simply type faster than they
write, and were inclined to stop
writing after a period of
time rather than bringing their
open-ended essays to a
conclusion. In this way, the benefit
of computers to gifted
adolescent students (particularly
males) appears to be a
simple matter of speed and
efficiency.
Female participants in this study,
on the other hand,
performed more consistently on
both essays (average
rating of 4.1 on essay 1 and
4.0 on essay 2). Their
performance did not seem to
change regardless of what
format they used. They were
overall more reflective and
generated more words, sentences,
and paragraphs. Because
gifted girls in high school report
higher levels of interest
(motivation) and confidence in
their skills for English
(language arts) than boys (Li &
Adamson, 1995), our
results are consistent with other
research. Indeed, overall,
on all measures—critical
thinking, number of words,
sentences, and paragraphs
generated—females scored
higher than males in the
handwritten condition. However,
the most significant finding was the
improvement that the
males made when they were
able to compose essays on
computers.
Results
Means and standard deviations
for the ‘satisfaction with
distance learning’,
‘independence in the learning
Results of the present research
lead to the conclusion that a
distance learning system
that is highly interactive and
most closely resembles a
college
students'
preferences for
distance
learning.
Journal of
Computer
Assisted
Learning,
18(1), 2-9.
http://search.eb
scohost.com,
doi:10.1046/j.0
2664909.2001.002
02.x
psychological
attitudes
mentioned
above affect
students
attitudes to
distance
learning at
the tertiary
level.
learning ICTbased
configuration
s were
examined.
The results
indicate that
psychological
attitudes held
by students
differentially
facilitate
efficient use
of distance
learning
approaches.
Satisfaction
with learning,
level of
control of the
learning
process, and
study
motivation
for distance
learning are
all
positively
related to the
students’
preferences
for structured
distance
learning,
whereas
independence
in learning is
positively
connected to
students’
preferences
for the more
open Internet
functionality.
were registered
in the
School of
Education at the
Safed Regional
College. All
students were
accepted for
study on the
basis of two
main criteria: (a)
college entrance
psychometric
examination
scores, and (b)
mean
achievement
level attained in
school
matriculation
examinations.
†
satisfaction,
independence,
level of
control and study
motivation of
students who
studied through the
two distance
learning systems
was specially
compiled. At the
outset, the
questionnaire
consisted
of 120 items which
were presented to
three distance
learning experts for
face and
content validity
evaluation. Ninetyfour items met the
validity criteria
used by the
evaluators and
were included in
the questionnaire
administered to the
research
sample. After
administration the
responses of the
students were
factor analysed in a
principal
components
analysis. Eighty
items met the
criterion of
statistical
significance (0.30)
and were used in
the statistical
analysis of the
research data. The
80 items clustered
randomly
divided into two
groups for a contentidentical year-long
(60 hours) courses on
the
topic ‘Introduction to
Educational
Psychology’. The
first group of 35
students was
taught by a senior
lecturer using the
video-conferencing
system and the
second group
of 32 students was
instructed by the
same lecturer using
the Internet approach.
For
both groups the same
senior lecturer taught
from a lecture hall,
located at the main
university campus in
Ramat Gan which
was specially adapted
for both teaching
approaches. The
synchronous lectures
were performed
online and the
Internet
lectures were
downloaded from the
relevant university
website with the
lecturer
situated in the same
lecture hall and
teaching
environment. The
students in both
groups studied in a
specially constructed
process’, ‘level of control of
the learning process’, and
‘study motivation for distance
learning’ attitudes for each
distance learning approach
were computed from data
collected from the research
questionnaire. Thereafter a
Discriminate Function
analysis was computed to
evaluate the contribution of
each
attitude to students’ utilization
preferences of the two
distance learning approaches.
The Discriminate Function
analysis indicates statistical
significance (Canonical
correlation = 0.66, p < 001)
between the two distance
learning approaches as well as
correct assigning of 78.65% of
the research subjects to their
correct distance learning
groups. In addition, the
‘satisfaction with distance
learning’, ‘level of control of
learning process’, and ‘study
motivation for distance
learning’ characterized the
synchronous distance learning
configuration whereas
‘independence in the learning
process’ typified the Internet
distance learning system
regular college lecture hall is
preferred by students with
certain learning preferences
and attitudes. Students
typified by independence in
their learning process
seemingly prefer a less
interactive
Internet-type distance learning
approach.
When contemplating the use
of a distance learning system,
university and college
authorities should consider the
apparent advantages of a more
highly interactive
delivery system. This type of
interactive system is
preferable for students who
are
satisfied with the learning
process, need to feel in control
of learning and are
motivated to study. An
Internet-type approach should
be considered mainly for
independent and self-confident
students who do not feel that
they are in serious need
of intense interaction with
tutors or lecturers when they
go about their learning.
around 4
significant factors
(20 items per
factor) which were
labelled
‘satisfaction with
distance learning’
(Cronbach
reliability
coefficient of
= 0.88),
‘independence in
learning’ (=
0.91), ‘level of
control of learning
process’ (=
0.86), and ‘study
motivation for
distance learning’
(= 0.87). Each
factor had a latent
root of unity and
explained at least
10% of the
variance.
The research
instrument was
administered to the
two groups of
students at the
end of the second
academic semester.
Procedure
Offir, B.,
Barth, I., Lev,
J., &
Shteinbok, A.
(2005). Can
interaction
content
analysis
research
contribute to
distance
The project was
designed as a
DL enrichment
program for
highly talented
pupils in
geographically
isolated and
under
developed
areas of Israel.
Although the
project was
designed for
high
school
The policy
allowed a
relatively high
percentage of
students who did
not fulfill the
university’s
standard
admission
criteria to take
part in an
academic course.
The high
academic level
and
stringent
During the first two
years of the project
we used a content
analysis instrument
developed and
validated in our
previous studies
(Offir & Lev, 2000)
to calculate
frequencies and ratios
of different
categories of teacher–
student interactions.
The instrument we
used was based on
Henri’s
lecture theatre suited
to both distance
learning
configurations at the
Safed college campus
with the videoconferencing
group of students
able to see the
lecturer on screen and
to communicate
synchronously
/interactively with the
lecturer during the
course of each lesson.
In
addition to the
particular distance
learning system used
by the lecturer for
both
groups, all students
were required to
communicate once
weekly with the
lecturer by
way of email as a
secondary and
complementary
interactive learning
system.
. The inter-rater
reliability rate for
our instrument is
r=0.82*
An initial examination showed no
significant correlations between
different categories of teacher
interactions. However, re-examination
of the data indicated that the category
‘teacher’s explanatory
interactions’ should be redivided into
the following three sub-categories:
●
Learning assistance interactions: the
teacher’s explanatory interactions
designed to facilitate
the students’ comprehension and
retention of content; the sub-category
contains the
teacher’s use of advance organizers,
In a DL environment, teachers no
longer have direct immediate access to
the confused faces and
off-task behaviours that indicate that
students are experiencing difficulties.
Consistent monitoring
of student performance throughout the
course, in addition to a final exam, is
an essential condition
which enables teachers to identify
when sub-groups of students require
additional support.
Content analysis using conditionsbased instruments can provide
teachers with individualised
feedback and ‘tailor-made’ guidelines
learning?.
Educational
Media
International,
42(2), 161-171.
http://search.eb
scohost.com,
doi:10.1080/09
523980500060
324
students, one
of the 10
participating
schools asked
us to allow a
class of
seventh and
eighth grade
students to
participate. The
class of
younger
students was
one of only two
groups
in which all
students in the
group
participated in
the entire
course. As we
show later, the
absence of
dropouts in the
younger group
may be due to
the ‘intensive
care’ and large
degree
of support that
they
consistently
requested and
received from
their local sitebased teacher.
Interviews with
Rachel, the
site-based
teacher who
accompanied
the seventh
and eighth
grade
students
throughout the
course, show
that younger
students, in
comparison to
older students,
require
considerably
more practice
and review of
newly learned
content in order
to feel that
conditions
imposed by the
university
authorities
represent only a
partial
explanation of
why over 50% of
students
withdrew from
the course.
Among the 10
participating
groups only
one group of
seventh and
eighth grade
students (
n
=22) and one
group of eleventh
grade students
(
n
=25) participated
in the entire
course The
findings direct us
to examine to
what extent
minimal
withdrawal rates
are related to age
appropriate
support provided
by local sitebased teachers
who
accompanied the
students in their
classrooms
throughout the
course
(1992) content
analysis framework,
which was
subsequently
modified by Oliver
and McLoughlin
(1996). The interrater reliability rate
for our instrument is
r=0.82* (Offir &
Lev, 2000).
The instrument’s
coding scheme
contained the
following five
categories:
●
Social interaction:
teachers interact with
learners in order to
create social relations
and
support affective–
motivational aspects
of the learning
process.
●
Procedural
interaction:
statements contain
information
regarding
administrative and
technical
issues related to the
lesson or course.
●
Expository
interaction:
statements present
knowledge content.
●
Explanatory
interaction: teachers
use the learners’
reactions to explain
content.
●
Cognitive task
engagement: teachers
present a question or
learning task, which
requires
learners to engage in
processing
information.
overviews and summaries, explicit
definition of the
lesson’s objectives and structure,
emphasis on the relevance of the
target content and other
teaching strategies designed to gain
and maintain the students’ attention;
this sub-category
was subsequently defined as a
category in order to allow the user to
differentiate between
expository statements which present
content and statements which
facilitate students’
information-processing. (Offir &
Barth, 2002).
●
Superficial teacher feedback: the
teacher’s responses that do not contain
an informative
explanation of why the student’s
answer or comment is incorrect;
teachers’ responses such as
‘Incorrect, anyone else?’ and ‘You are
in the right direction, try again,’
would be included in
this sub-category.
regarding which interaction patterns
need to be
strengthened or modified in order to
support learning. Consistent
monitoring and feedback
create a recursive process which helps
teachers to regulate their management
of interactions
when they no longer have access to
immediate direct feedback from their
students.
Supplying a support system
Students in a DL environment do not
have access to teachers’ non-verbal
signals such as
smiles and gestures that often
moderate the teacher’s messages in
the conventional classroom.
A lack of non-verbal interactions
(where those types of interactions
usually reassure and
encourage young students in ‘typical’
classroom settings) may cause young
students to
perceive a DL environment as
inhospitable. As Brown, Palincsar and
Purcell (1986) observed,
the lack of reassurance may trigger
coping defensive strategies for
preserving self-worth, such
as the systematic devaluation of
academic tasks and goals and
justification of lack of effort. To
prevent young students from
perceiving the DL environment as
non-supportive, we provided
our students with a ‘safety net’ of
support features, in addition to the
site-based teacher in the
classroom:
●
An online ‘help desk’ option during
each lesson.
●
A course Web site which served as an
electronic notice-board and informal
meeting place for
participating students.
●
An additional, asynchronous option
that enabled students to download
each week’s lesson for
review at their own pace.
In-service programs for site-based
teachers
In our project, university-based
lecturers were mainly responsible for
knowledge transmission,
they have
mastered the
material.
while the local site-based teachers
were responsible for mediating
between the subject content
and their individual students. Our field
experience shows that not all sitebased teachers made
a smooth transition from being the
‘sage on the stage’ and main source of
knowledge in the classroom
to the more supportive role of ‘guide
on the side’. We conclude that
effective in-service programs.
Toprevent young students from
perceiving the DL environment as
non-supportive, we provided
our students with a ‘safety net’ of
support features, in addition to the
site-based teacher in the
classroom:
●
An online ‘help desk’ option during
each lesson.
●
A course Web site which served as an
electronic notice-board and informal
meeting place for
participating students.
●
An additional, asynchronous option
that enabled students to download
each week’s lesson for
review at their own pace.
One of the
main
purposes of
the project
was to
identify
students
who, despite
their high
levels
of learning
potential,
would not be
eligible for
university
admission
since their
psychometric
scores
and school
grades do not
reflect their
high levels
of ability.
Carnwell, R. (2000).
Approaches to Study
and their Impact on
the Need for
Support and
Guidance in
Distance Learning.
Open Learning,
15(2), 123-140.
http://search.ebscoh
ost.com,
doi:10.1080/026805
10050050837
The aim of the
research was to
develop
relationships
between
approaches
to study,
learning styles
and strategies,
and materials
design, and
how these
impact on the
need for
support and
guidance in
distance
learning. The
research draws
on theories of
learning style
and strategies,
as well as
constructivism.
Forty-five of the
original sample
were willing to
be interviewed,
of which 20
were
purposively
selected. Each
interview
produced about
12 pages of
text.
This paper is based
on the findings of
the second phase
of a two-phase
study. The
first phase
comprised a
questionnaire
survey of 120
students who had
studied either
a Research
Awareness
module, or an
Access module in
health care. Both
types of
module were
studied at diploma
level. The
Research
Awareness module
included
monthly group
The transcripts
were analyzed using
the principles of
grounded theory in
order to derive a
theory inductively
from the data (Glaser
& Strauss, 1967).
Using grounded
theory
facilitated the
development of
tentative concepts
and categories as well
as an
explanation for the
approaches to study
used by the women in
this study (Glaser &
Strauss, 1967).
The coding processes
loosely followed those
recommended by
Strauss and Corbin
Preparation and
Analysis of Data
To ensure familiarity
with the data all the
transcripts were read
twice, in addition to
listening to the tapes to
take into account
nuances of speech
(King, 1994). The first
three tapes were
transcribed verbatim,
and analyzed, before
commencing
subsequent
interviews, thus
informing the ensuing
data collection (Strauss
& Corbin,
1990). As is consistent
with grounded theory,
superfluous phrases
were omitted
consistently at the data
Immersion in the data
during open coding had
already indicated
possible overlaps
between properties
belonging to different
categories, particularly
in relation to the three
approaches to study.
Axial coding, then,
confirmed and
developed these
tentative links between
the properties of the
three
approaches to study and
other concepts and
categories.
Theories of learning styles and
approaches to learning provided a
useful framework
for the focus of this research.
Moreover, the three approaches to
study provide a
more holistic picture of distance
learning students in that they
demonstrate not only
the way in which students
progress through the learning
experience, but the different
types of support and guidance
needed during this process.
A constructivist approach,
however, relies on more than style
theory to explain
behavior. It became evident within
the analysis that styles and
strategies employed
by these students all of whom
were women are predicated upon
by socialized
patterns of learning, together with
The nature of guidance is
fundamental to the future of
distance education in
nursing, and will become
increasingly important as
advances in technology impact
further on the delivery of distance
learning provision. Guidance,
therefore, should
include different levels and types
of student support, as well as
materials design
features. Providing the appropriate
resources to cater for different
approaches to study should
facilitate deeper levels of learning
and hence achievement.
tutorials, whilst the
access modules
included no such
provision. The
main focus of the
initial survey was
students’
experience of
distance learning.
The
need for dialogue
and its relationship
to materials design
and learning
support
(Carnwell, 1999)
emerged as
important concepts
from phase one.
The aim of the
second stage of the
research was thus
to further develop
relationships
between
approaches to
study, learning
styles and
strategies, and
materials
design, and how
these impact on the
need for support
and guidance in
distance
learning. The
interactive nature
of the research
assumes a
constructivist
philosophy
in which students
construct their own
meaning from the
learning situation
(Olugbemiro,
1991).
(1990). This paper
explains the
development of
concepts, categories
and properties
from the interview
transcripts. The
process through
which raw data from
interview
transcripts was
translated into a
theory of approaches
to study in distance
learning
is also explained
(Kna¯ & Howard,
1984). The theory
emerging from the
data is
then discussed with
reference to theories
of learning styles and
approaches to study.
preparation stage,
before commencing
open coding (Strauss
& Corbin, 1990).
Open Coding
Open coding involves
naming and categorizing
phenomena through
close examination
of the data (Strauss &
Corbin, 1990). This
process relied upon a
line-by-line,
sentence and paragraph
analysis to label
phenomena arising from
the interviews.
Axial coding involved
the development of
tentative links between
the different categories
(Strauss & Corbin,
1990). Immersion in the
data during open coding
had already indicated
possible overlaps
between properties
belonging to different
categories,
particularly in relation to
the three approaches to
study. Axial coding,
then, confirmed and
developed these
tentative links between
the properties of the
three approaches to
study and other
concepts and
categories. An important
tentative link emerged
between external
dialogue, a preference
for closed materials, and
need for guidance
(Table II). It would
appear, then, that
guidance is necessary to
help students to
determine their learning
needs and to find
their way through the
learning process.
Furthermore, guidance
can be provided
either by closed
materials, or external
dialogue.
pressures of existing work and
domestic life
(Belenky et al., 1986). The use of
grounded theory, therefore,
demonstrates links
between styles and strategies and
how these are mediated by other
concepts, such as
the need for guidance and
engagement with materials. It is
proposed, therefore, that
students use different approaches
to study in distance learning
depending upon their
preferred style of learning, and that
this is mediated by the learning
context and
materials design. This combination
of factors will determine the nature
and extent
of guidance required by individual
students.
Distance learning is increasing in
nurse education to allow greater
access to study
opportunities. Most students,
however, are likely to be women
with domestic
responsibilities and work
commitments. Some students will
have had a break from
education and may be unsure
about the level of learning
required. Whilst not
attempting to generalize these
findings beyond the 20
participants, this research has
demonstrated a link between
approaches to study, the nature of
guidance required,
and the way in which students
construct meaning from distance
learning materials.
Inman, E.,
Kerwin, M., &
Mayes, L. (1999).
INSTRUCTOR
AND STUDENT
ATTITUDES
TOWARD
DISTANCE
LEARNING.
Community
College Journal of
Research &
Practice, 23(6),
581-591.
http://search.ebsco
host.com,
doi:10.1080/1066
89299264594
Eleven
instructors, eight
men and three
women, teaching
six different
telecourses in the
University of
Kentucky
Community
College System,
were surveyed in
the fall of 1996.
The classes
included history,
English,
psychology,
political science,
family studies,
and anthropology
classes. Ten of
the 11 instructors
had taught at
least five years.
The least number
of instructors
from a single
college was one
and the most was
four. The least
number of
students taught
by a single
instructor was 13
and the most was
184.
Questions were
not specified but
the following
was gained from
the results:
How were
following ranked
in importance for
distance
learning?
*The quality of
the instructorgenerated
materials
*quality of oncampus sessions
*availability of
the instructor
.
Caraisco, J.
(2007).
Overcoming
Lethargy in Gifted
and Talented
Education with
Contract Activity
Packages "I'm
The author
compares the
potential
academic and
attitudinal gains
of a gifted and
talented
population using
different
instructional
Will there be a
significant
difference in
the science
achievement of
fourth grade
gifted and
talented
students
taught through
Qualitative
Methods: Three
hundred and thirtyfour students in six
different classes
taught by 11 different
instructors were
surveyed (62.9%
response rate). Of the
students, 26% were
male, 74% were
female. The smallest
number of students
from a single college
was 13 and the
largest number was
159. The smallest
number from a single
class was 13 and the
largest number was
86. The average age
was 28.4 years old
(SD = 9.5, Median =
26, Mode-19) and the
sample was
predominantly white
(98.8%) Three
variables accounted
for 69% of the
variance in how
students rated the
quality of instruction
(see Table 1). On a
scale of 1 to 4 with 1
being poor and 4
being excellent, the
mean rating for
instructors was 3.56
(8D = .60). No
student rated any
instructor poor, and
only a small percent
rated the instructor as
fair. Almost all
students rated the
instructors good
(33.5%) or excellent
(61%)).
twenty-five subjects
from a population
of gifted fourthgrade students
currently enrolled in
a self-contained
gifted and talented
class in a NYC
elementary school.
The students in this
A pencil-and-paper
survey was given to
teachers. The distance
learning technology
employed in all classes
was telecourse video
(called "telecourse
materials" in the
results). In addition,
instructors created their
own materials for the
classes (called
"instructor-generated
materials" in the
results). These materials
ranged from standard
syllabi to elaborate, tenpage syllabi, and/or
weekly or monthly
newsletters with study
guides and calendar
reminder notices.
Instructors completed
these surveys about
two-thirds through the
semester.
One regression equation
was calculated for each of
three measures of overall
satisfaction: ratings of
quality of instruction,
ratings of overall quality of
the course, and ratings of
the amount learned in the
course. The decision to
include a variable in a
regression analysis was
based on the correlations
between individual items
and the factor. Any item
with a statistically
significant correlation over
.20 was used in an
equation for that factor.
The items were entered
into a stepwise regression
equation in order of the
highest correlation first.
The following describes
the results, based on that
process.
There may be a limitation
to the generalizability of
this study because of the
high quality of these
courses. As was noted in
the results, of several
hundred students, not one
student rated any instructor
as "poor." It may be that,
in a course taught by a less
competent instructor, direct
interaction with the
instructor is the critical
predictor of ratings.
Moreover, with poorly
developed videos, oncampus sessions with the
instructor may become a
more critical factor.
Mixed Methods
The entire population of
students in the selfcontained gifted and
talented fourth-grade class
participated:
1. We administered the
OWLS learning styles
assessment to the students.
2. Students completed a
pretest on Unit A, Chapter
There were no specific
limitations reported.
The following statement
could be construed as a
limitation:
The classroom
teacher felt the only
drawback to the CAP
lesson was
1. The administration of
the Our Wonderful
Learning
Styles (OWLS)
Inventory
(http://www.owlstest.co
m) in February 2006 to
assess students’ learning
The quality of the instructor-generated
materials was the most influential
factor, accounting for 55% of the
variance in instructor ratings. The
second most important factor was
the quality of on-campus sessions,
accounting for 9% of the variance in
instructor ratings. The third most
important factor was the perceived
availability of the instructor,
accounting for 5% of the variance in
instructor ratings. In general, the
instructors were experienced teachers
who had volunteered to teach the
distance learning class. Nine of 11
had volunteered to teach the distance
learning class. Ten of 11 had taught a
distance learning class before. At the
end of the class, 10 of the 11 said they
would teach this course again using
distance learning technology or
another course using distance
learning technology.
However, the instructors' responses to
another question revealed a peculiar
contradiction. Despite their
willingness to be involved and
participate again, given a choice
among reporting that the class was
lower quality, similar quality, or
higher quality, five of these 11
willing, experienced distance
learning class instructors said the
distance learning class was of lower
quality and not one said it was of
higher quality.
Analysis of variances (ANOVA)
and correlations tests for each
instructional situation were
conducted. There were statistically
significant improvements in both
gains (α = .05) and final test
scores (α = .01) when
using the CAP method of teaching
compared with a traditional
method of teaching. There was
Based on these findings, several
important suggestions can be made:
Because teaching a distance learning
class involves a new role for
instructors, administrators must
provide them with the time, the tools,
and the training to meet these new
responsibilities. Distance learning
programs should educate faculty on
this new role and how to fulfill those
challenges. Instructors should be
provided feedback from their students
before end-of-the-semester course
evaluations. Instructors who depend
on questions or "head nods" or "looks
of understanding" from students in
class may benefit from survey data
from students reporting what they find
helpful or what they need. Instructors
may be doing a better job than they
imagine. The more experience an
instructor has teaching in a traditional
classroom, the less satisfied that
instructor may be, at first, in a
distance learning classroom.
Distance learning programs can
address this by providing education
about the technology, data on previous
successes, and interaction between
faculty new to this technology and
those who have had positive
experiences. Despite some negative
attitudes about distance learning
technology, it is clearly a means of
educational delivery with which
students are satisfied. Distance
learning may not be best for every
student or for every college, but it is
one means of ensuring access to
higher education for many, and access
is a goal at which community colleges
have excelled.
The findings from my research
project will support creation of
professional development
opportunities for the gifted and
talented teachers to align
instructional methods with
students’ learning preferences.
The results of this research will
allow the entire staff to better
Choosing to
Learn!". Clearing
House, 80(6), 255259.
http://search.ebsco
host.com
methods. It has
been found that
instruction for
identified highachieving
students must be
different than
that of general
education
students. Gifted
and talented
students cannot
maximize
learning
opportunities
unless they are
appropriately
challenged and
motivated to
learn. When
gifted learners
are lethargic and
disinterested in
learning, bettermatched
instruction is
needed. Using
contract activity
packages with a
gifted and
talented
population will
support high-end
learners in the
classroom.
During this
project, the
contract activity
packages method
of instruction
provided the
children with
choice,
flexibility, and
challenged them
at a higher level
than they
experienced
through
traditional
lessons.
traditional
methods
compared
with those
taught with
CAPs?
Will there be a
significant
difference in
the attitude
toward
curriculum of
fourth grade
gifted and
talented
students taught
through
traditional
methods
compared
with those
taught with
CAPs?
school are 38.3
percent Caucasian,
8.5 percent black,
9.6 percent
Hispanic, and 43.6
percent Asian and
Other, which is
representative of
the
demographically
diverse population
found in the local
neighborhood.
These students
were identified as
gifted based on the
administration
of the OLSAT
School Ability Test
in the spring of
2002.
preferences.
This assessment asks
the students a series of
questions that identify
each student’s
preferences for
twenty-five different
elements. Examples
include each
student’s preference for
bright or soft lighting,
sound
versus quiet, seating,
pictures versus words,
and learning
alone, with peers, or
directly with the
teacher. This
learning-style approach
was developed more
than thirty-four years
ago and has been used
in thousands of
classrooms around the
world to help students
improve
their grades and better
enjoy schooling. It has
been
proven to increase
aptitude and
achievement scores in
hundreds of studies
(http://www.learningstyl
es.net). 2. Computerized
OWLS analyses for
each child. After we
tested the children, I
was able to print out the
individual results for
each child. My goal in
administering this
assessment was to help
better plan our
instructional techniques
for our gifted and
talented students
based on their learning
styles. Students took
this assessment in the
computer lab and it took
approximately
thirty minutes to
complete.
5, Lesson 3, “What are the
digestive and nervous
systems?” 3. We taught
students a traditional
science lesson using Scott
Foresman Science: See
Learning in a WholeNew
Light. 2006. Unit A,
Chapter 5, Lesson 3,
“What are the digestive
and nervous systems?” 4.
We administered the
semantic differential scale
to students to assess their
attitudes toward science
instruction and curriculum.
5. Students completed a
posttest on Unit A, Chapter
5, Lesson, “What are the
digestive and nervous
systems?” 6. Students
completed a pretest on
Unit A, Chapter 5,
Lesson 4, “How does the
body defend itself?”
(Cooney et al. 2006).
7. We taught students
through the use of a CAP,
“How does the body
defend itself?”
8. We administered the
semantic differential scale
to students to assess their
attitudes toward science
instruction and curriculum.
9. Students completed a
posttest on Unit A, Chapter
5, Lesson 4, “How does
the body defend itself?”
the increased volume of
student voices in the
classroom.
She had to continually
remind students to use
classroom-appropriate
voices. The teacher did
note
that some of the children
were frustrated during the
CAP unit because the
nature of the projects did
not allow them to be
absolutely perfect in their
presentation.
As we know from our
gifted learners, many of
the children tend to be
perfectionists in their work
and are highly critical of
their own performances.
also a statistically significant
increase in positive attitude toward
science learning when using the
CAP method compared
with the traditional method (α =
.05; see figures 5, 6, and 7).
Students were highly engaged
during the CAP unit of study
compared with the traditional
lessons.
Atan, H., Rahman, Z.,
& Idrus, R. (2004).
Characteristics of the
In this study, we
looked at the
students’
The
questionnaire
contained
The sample of the
study consisted of
the distance
The questionnaire
developed for this
study was of the type
The analysis of the data
involved extracting the
means of each of the
No limitations were
reported.
The results of this study show that
the students agreed with the
superior advantage of on-line
understand the learning
preferences of our gifted
and talented students and
provide data for future
modifications of instructional
materials and methods to
support both the attitudes of
gifted and talented students
toward curriculum and their
subsequent achievement
gains.
Web-Based Learning
Environment in
Distance Education:
Students' Perceptions
of Their Learning
Needs. Educational
Media International,
41(2), 103-110.
http://search.ebscohost.
com,
doi:10.1080/09523980
410001678557
perceptions
regarding their
needs on the
various aspects
of the on-line
services. The
aspects studied
were the general
support services,
learning support
services, on-line
learning
materials, the
instructional
design of on-line
learning, the
resources of online learning and
other related
aspects. It was
hoped that this
study would
reveal the
characteristics of,
and student
preferences
towards, the
on-line webbased design that
could provide a
comprehensive
learner’s support
system and
pedagogical
approaches that
are in line with
their need as
students in
distance
education. This
study would also
foster
understanding of
the students’
needs with
respect to on-line
learning and the
appropriate
instructional
strategies
that are most
suitable for them.
The preferred online instructional
design could be
taken into
consideration
during the
statements
related to the
various
aspects of online learning,
including the
general support
system,
learning
support system,
learning
materials,
instructional
strategies of
the learning
materials,
learning
resources.
education learners
enrolled in the
distance education
programs at the
School of Distance
Education,
University Sains
Malaysia, Penang,
for the 2001/2002
Students’
Perceptions of
Learning Needs
105
academic session.
The questionnaires
were distributed
randomly among
the first, second
and third-year
undergraduate
students. A total of
315 questionnaires
were returned – a
return rate of
31.5%.
that tried to elicit the
feedback of the
respondents
towards their needs
in on-line learning.
The questionnaire
contained statements
related to the various
aspects of on-line
learning, including
the general support
system, learning
support system,
learning
materials,
instructional
strategies of the
learning materials,
learning resources.
Each statement was
accompanied
by the Likert Scale
ranging from 1–5,
with 1 denoting the
least useful/important
and 5 the most
useful/important
statements with the
means of 3.0
representing
the equilibrium point.
The means greater than
3.0 reflected the
respondents’ agreement
with the
statements put forward,
while means with
values less than 3.0
reflected the
respondents’
disagreement with the
statements put to them.
learning in terms of the
instructional strategies it can
support that would result in
learning that is more interesting,
communicative and collaborative.
The other advantages included the
linkages to other reference
resources that they perceived
would affect their learning
positively through their
receptiveness to new information.
However, the students
perceived that the role of on-line
learning in distance education is
more of a supportive nature to
enhance and assist their
understanding of the course
materials via the dissemination of
supplementary learning materials.
Despite the advantageous features
of on-line learning, the students
perceived that the printed
modules should remain the main
medium of the course delivery in
distance education, leading to a
more suitable and comprehensive
hybrid learning environment. Our
research can be regarded as an
attempt to further develop the
existing learning environment in
distance education with an
exciting blend of the printed text,
much needed face-to-face
interaction at the right dose and
the on-line format; giving rise to
the appropriate use of
synchronous
and the asynchronous
environment.
planning and
development
stage of on-line
web-based
support and
learning
environments,
leading to an
effective and
satisfying
learning
experience by the
students.
Ying, W.,
Huamao, P.,
Ronghuai, H.,
Yanhua, H., &
Jingjing, W.
(2008).
Characteristics
of distance
learners:
research on
relationships of
learning
motivation,
learning
strategy, selfefficacy,
attribution and
learning
results. Open
Learning,
23(1), 17-28.
http://search.eb
scohost.com,
doi:10.1080/02
680510701815
277
Hypothesis
one: Learning
motivation
and learning
strategy have
directly
positive
predictable
effects on
learning
results,
respectively.
● Hypothesis
two: Selfefficacy and
attribution
have indirect
effects on
learning
results and
they can
affect
learning
results via
their effect on
learning
strategy and
learning
motivation.
●
As two
important
characteristic
s of distance
learners, how
do these two
components
affect
learning
results? How
are they
related? How
do the other
relevant
factors such
as selfefficacy and
attribution
affect
learning
results? What
are the
relationships
among these
psychological
variables?
For this research,
135 adult
distance learners
were sampled
(68 females and
67 males). These
students were all
majors in
software
development and
the application of
electronic
information
technology. The
students were all
based at Beijing
Radio and
Television
University, and
they
each received a
questionnaire
and participated
in an
instructional
experiment
Questionnaire on
learning motivation
of distance
learners The
questionnaire
consists of 34
questions with a
four-point Likert
scale, The mean of
the 34 questions is
taken as the final
score for the
questionnaire. The
higher the score,
the stronger
the learner’s
motivation on this
measure. The
Cronbach α
coefficient of the
questionnaire is
0.877. The wording
of this
questionnaire
(four-point scale) is
different from the
other research
tools used because
we deleted some
neutral options to
take account of a
possible neutral
tendency
of motivation
Multidimensional–
Multiattributional
Causality Scale (MMCS)
The MMCS mainly
measures learner’s
attribution tendency of
the success or failure of
schoolwork achievement.
This scale puts forward
four possible attributions,
which are ability and
effort, reflecting internal
locus of control, and luck
and task difficulty,
reflecting external locus of
control. Each attribution
tendency is divided further
into two conditions,
success and failure.
MMCS scale uses a fivepoint score calculation.
Taking learning results as
a dependent variable and
various psychological
characteristics as
predictable variables, we
used AMOS software to set
up the structure equation
model of the relationship
between psychological
characteristics and
learning results. The
analysis indicates that the
model is a good fit and the
coefficient of each path is
significant. The edge of
the path from the learning
results towards the final
examination result of the
course is marginally
significant (p < 0.08) and
the other path coefficients
are statistically significant
(p < 0.01).
However, this
research extends
analysis of this idea
and brings in the
variable of distance
learning strategy
In summary, learning results
are mainly affected by
learning strategy. This is
particularly
so in self-directed learning and
collaborative learning for
distance learners, where
having a learning strategy
plays an important role. This
conclusion is similar to the
research outcome from
Shih and Gamon (2001),
which also supports the view
that the level of learning
strategy is one of
the most important factors in
determining learning results.
Also, it is similar to the
research
outcome from Liu, Xi, Huang,
and Shen (2000), which
indicates that learning
motivation can
indirectly affect learning
results because of learning
strategy.
The model of distance
learners’ psychological
characteristics set-up in this
research indicates the
following recommendations
for practical teaching. It may
particularly help to improve
learning
support.
First, it is important to help
learners adapt to self-directed
learning in a distance
environment. Second, it is
important to pay attention to
and strengthen instruction
related to learning methods
for distance learners. It is also
important to specify learning
objectives, and to help with
improving and promoting
the level of the learner’s
learning strategy . Third,
there is a need to emphasize
the self-efficacy and to correct
the attribution of learners,
first of all by reinforcing the
cultivation of self-efficacy.
Neber, H., &
SchommerAikins, M. (2002).
Self-regulated
Science Learning
with Highly
Gifted Students:
the role of
cognitive,
motivational,
epistemological,
and environmental
variables. High
Ability Studies,
13(1), 59-74.
http://search.ebsco
host.com,
doi:10.1080/1359
8130220132316
This research
examines the
issue of selfregulated
learning among
highly gifted
elementary
(n 5 93) and high
school students
(n 5 40) in
science. Selfreport measures
assessed
self-regulatory
strategy use in
science and a
spectrum of
environmental
(perceived level
of investigation)
and individual
prerequisites
(motivational
beliefs, goal
orientation,
epistemological
beliefs and
intentions).
This study
focused on three
questions:
(1) Comparing
highly gifted
students at
elementary
school and highschool levels on
variables of selfregulated
learning.
(2) Examining
gender
differences in
science-related
self-regulated
learning.
(3) Analysing
causal relations
among external
and internal
variables of selfregulated
learning in
science/physics.
This includes
analyses of the
causal roles of
epistemological
beliefs,
epistemological
intentions, and
variables of the
learning
environment for
the utilization of
self-regulated
learning
strategies.
A total of 133
students (69 boys, 64
girls) participated in
the study. Of these,
93 students attended
an elementary school
for highly gifted
pupils in New York
City, NY (32 fourth,
39 fifth and 22 sixth
graders). They had
been identified by a
screening procedure
using the Stanford–
Binet and they scored
in the top 2–3% of
this test. The
participating 40
secondary school
students met the
same intellectual
requirements and
attended the high
school for highly
gifted students also in
New
York City (24 eighth
and 16 twelfth
graders).
For each of the groups
of dependent variables,
self-regulated learning,
motivation,
epistemological
intentions,
epistemological beliefs,
and learning
environment,
MANOVAs were
carried out with the
between-subject factors
gender (2) and school
level (2). With the
exception of selfregulated learning,
school level differences
were
found in aspects of all
categories of dependent
variables. Gender
differences were
found in motivation and
epistemological beliefs.
Table 2 shows the
multivariate test
results
Epistemological beliefs
were checked using the
high school questionnaire
of Schommer
(1993). Six general
epistemological beliefs,
titled from a less
sophisticated
perspective, were
measured: belief in innate
inability for knowing;
belief that success
is unrelated to work; belief
in quick learning; belief in
seeking single answers;
belief
in avoiding integration of
knowledge; and belief in
certain knowledge.
Learning environment was
considered by one variable:
investigation is one of four
dimensions measured by
the Classroom
Environment Scale (a selfreport questionnaire
for students) which was
developed by Teh and
Fraser (1995). The
subscale was used to
measure the extent of
exploration in the
science/physics learning
environments of the
students. The
questionnaires were
administered in two parts
with at least a day between
them. This occurred with
intact classes or groups of
students. The students
participated
voluntarily and
anonymously.
An overview of the
instruments used in the
current study and their
reliability
coefficients (Cronbach’s a)
is shown in Table 1.
Results
For each of the groups of
dependent variables, selfregulated learning,
motivation,
epistemological intentions,
epistemological beliefs,
and learning environment,
Limitations were not
discussed in this
article.
Firstly, high school students
were experiencing less
investigation in science, and
test anxiety and work
avoidance were more
pronounced than
with elementary students.
Secondly, highly gifted girls’
science-related motivational
beliefs
were less positive than those
of boys. Thirdly, path analyses
indicate that the level of
investigation in the science
learning environment strongly
determines motivational and
epistemological prerequisites
of self-regulatory strategy use.
The results indicate that
exploration
and discovery should be
enabled and strengthened in
science classrooms of highly
gifted students.
MANOVAs were carried
out with the betweensubject factors gender (2)
and school
level (2). With the
exception of self-regulated
learning, school level
differences were
found in aspects of all
categories of dependent
variables. Gender
differences were
found in motivation and
epistemological beliefs.
Table 2 shows the
multivariate test
results.
Comparisons of
Elementary School and
High School Students
Self-regulated learning
measured as cognitive
activities (strategy use) is
not a very
distinct characteristic of
these highly gifted
elementary and high school
students.
The means for cognitive
and regulatory strategies
use are weaker than
Wolters and
Pintrich (1998) found for
normal seventh graders
(cognitive strategy use M5
5.28;
regulatory strategy use M5
4.95). In addition, the data
reveal no significant
differences
in strategies between
elementary graders and
high school students.
Motivational
characteristics
Thornton, B., Haskell,
H., & Libby, L. (2006).
A Comparison of
Learning Styles
Between Gifted and
Non-Gifted High
School Students.
Individual Differences
Research, 4(2), 106110.
http://search.ebscohost.
com
The present
research
examined
differences in
learning styles
among three
student groups of
high school
students who
were
distinguished, in
part, on the
basis of
Nonprobability
samples of lO'^-grade
Caucasian urban
high-school students
(N = 100) took part
in this study during
their regularly
scheduled study hall
period. Certain
students previously
had been identified as
gifted {n = 34). This
classification had
Differences in the
use of the four
learning styles
previously
described were
assessed using the
Inventory of
Learning Processes
(Geisler-Brenstein
&Schmeck, 1996;
The measure consists of 62
items describing
various strategies and
techniques a student may
use to study in order to
learn
new information. Each
item is responded to as
either true (scored 1) or
false
(scored 0) as it reflects a
particular student's
approach. Individual items
Proportional response rates reflecting
the relative reliance on each of the
four
learning strategy indices were
analyzed as a within-subjects factor
while student
classification served as a betweensubjects factor in a split-plot factorial
design.
An initial analysis had included
student gender as an additional factor
but, as
there were no significant differences
This suggests the potential for
enhancing the academic performance
of students, not by emphasizing
different
modes of learning, but more extensive
and varied use of these modes. It is
also
recommended that routine assessment
of individual differences in learning
styles
take place to ensure the success of
learning strategy training and research
programs (e.g., Schmeck, 1988). The
intelligence,
academic
aptitude and
performance, and
achievements
and
could be
differentially
identified as
"gifted or
talented" or not.
It was predicted
that greater use
of synthesisanalysis and
elaborative
processing would
be
apparent among
gifted students
compared to nongifted students.
The opposite
was expected
with regard to
fact retention and
methodical study
techniques.
Feng, A.,
VanTasselBaska, J.,
Quek, C., Bai,
W., & O'Neill,
B. (2004). A
Longitudinal
Assessment of
Gifted
Students'
Learning Using
the Integrated
Curriculum
Model (ICM):
Impacts and
Perceptions of
the William
and Mary
The purpose of
this study was
to assess the
effects over
time of
implementing a
differentiated
curriculum for
gifted learners
designed
around the
Integrated
Curriculum
Model (ICM).
There were two
major research
questions: 1)
To what extent
is there
evidence of
gifted students'
growth as a
result of the
use of ICMbased
curriculum? 2)
To what extent
is this
curriculum
meeting the
needs of
identified
students as
perceived by
relevant
stakeholders?
been based on
teacher
recommendations,
academic history,
and performance on
either the Maine
Educational
Assessment
(measuring
student progress and
achievement in
reading, writing,
math, and science) or
the
Terra Nova Test (a
norm referenced
standardized test of
student performance
and mastery of
English, language
arts, social studies,
math, and science).
Other
students were not
gifted, but were
identified as collegebound (n =32). Still
others were identified
as not gifted and not
college-bound {n =
34).
A total of 973
students (grades
three to nine) from
one northeastern
suburban school
district comprised the
overall student
sample of this study,
among which there
were 116 thirdgraders, 106 fourthgraders, and 109
fifth-graders. Most of
these students had
been exposed to the
William and Mary
language arts and
science units over a
3-year period and
were tested by the
corresponding
performance-based
assessments during
the period of 1996
and 2002. In the
perceptual part of the
study, surveys were
Schmeck, 1983).
Both quantitative and
qualitative techniques
were used in data
analysis. Descriptive
statistics such as means,
standard deviations, and
percentages were used
to present the survey
data; inferential
techniques such as
paired samples t tests,
and analysis of variance
were used to investigate
students' pre-post
achievement gains in
targeted areas of
language arts and
science.
The instruments employed
to assess student learning
were performance based in
orientation. Interrater
reliability was .90, based
on the use of outside
trained observers over
most years of data
collection. The Diet Cola
Test which assessed
scientific experimental
design facility has reported
form reliability at .76 and
inter-rater reliability from
.90 to .95; it has been
found to be a highly
sensitive instrument to
students' different
responses and has been
recommended for use with
gifted students to assess
high level science learning
(Adams & Callahan,
1995). Researchers and
project staff also found that
it adequately assessed
research skills in
were
then appropriately
combined to form
composite assessments of
synthesis analysis,
elaborative processing, fact
retention, and study
methods. This
assessment has been
shown to have very good
validity, reliability, and
predictive
ability (DeBello, 1990;
Duff, 1997; Gadzella,
2002; Gadzilla, Stephens,
&
Baloglu, 2003; Schmeck &
Ribich, 1978; Schmeck,
Ribich, & Ramanaiah,
1977).
(Fs < 1) between girls and boys, it was
removed and the data are reported on
in the aggregate.
assessment and identification of
learning
style also has been noted to be of
particular importance where gifted
and talent
individuals are concerned so that
counseling interventions that match
their
learning style may be utilized (Griggs,
1993) and by implementing
complementary interventions and
opportunities that would contribute to
"catalyzing giftedness" and promote
high achievement (Griggs & Dunn,
1984).
This would seem to be something of
importance to all students, not just
those
identified as gifted and talented, so as
to enhance the educational experience
and
promote achievement for all students
albeit in their respective different
endeavors.
There were several
limitations to the study.
First, there was a lack of a
comparison group from the
school district. All gifted
students in the district
have received the same
treatment over the last 6
years, making an in-district
comparison group difficult
to establish. However,
because of the multi-year
track of students'
performance on pre- and
post-tests by multi-cohorts
(1996-2002), an inference
of the curricular impact
might be made through the
longitudinal pattern of
performance.
Paired-samples t tests were performed
to examine students' academic growth
in the program in the key areas of
language arts and science over a
period of 6 years (1996-2002). Table 1
shows that statistically significant
gains from pre- to post-assessment
were registered in literary analysis,
persuasive writing, grammar, and
scientific research skills, regardless of
the grade level being tested. The effect
sizes using Cohen's d index ranged
from .52 to 1.38, suggesting that these
academic gains were educationally
important and statistically significant.
Except for literary analysis, students'
academic growth in persuasive
writing, grammar, and scientific
research skills have been large, an
increase of more than one standard
deviation above the pre-test means in
corresponding areas. The magnitude
of achievement growth in literary
analysis was of medium size; the size
of growth in persuasive writing
appeared to slow down to the
moderate level at fifth grade (d =
Implications for research include a
need for replication studies in other
districts that can document the 3-year
growth patterns found in this study for
science and language arts learning at
higher levels. Other studies, using
appropriate level and type of
standardized assessments, would
further validate these findings, as
would a study examining long term
outcome differences on high stakes
measures such as Advanced
Placement tests and the Scholastic
Aptitude Test. Studies that analyze
gifted student performance from
underrepresented groups would also
contribute to our understanding of the
curriculum's flexibility of use.
Another limitation was the
low rate of return of the
parent survey (40%) and
the teacher survey (48%),
which might affect the
overall generalizability of
Language Arts
and Science
Curriculum.
Roeper Review,
27(2), 78-83.
http://search.eb
scohost.com
returned by 367
parents, 110
educators, and 732
students.
experimental design
(VanTassel-Baska et al.
1998). The pre-post
literary analysis
assessment and pre-post
writing assessment was
developed and validated in
earlier studies (VanTasselBaska, Johnson, Hughes,
& Boyce, 1996;
VanTassel-Baska, Zuo,
Avery, & Little, 2002).
The pre-post writing
assessment rubric was also
validated with other
populations (Burkhalter,
1995).
The stakeholder survey
instrument used in the
study contained multiplechoice and Likert-type
items, with two openended questions. It
consisted of 28 to 31 items
(depending on the
stakeholder group) and was
designed for electronic
scanning
the survey findings.
Finally, although the
district has collected
performance-based
assessment data over a
period of 6 years, the
reported data in this study
cover only grades three to
five for any given cohort
group. Current sixththrough eighth-graders'
performance-based
assessment data were not
available.
0.66), as compared to growth of 1.28,
and 1.27 standard deviations above
the pre-test means at the third and
fourth grade. However, the overall
academic growth steadily increased
from lower to higher grade levels in
all domains assessed.