TEN STEPS TO
ADVANCED READING
John Langan
© 2009 Townsend Press
Chapter Five:
Relationships II
Besides relationships involving addition and
time, there are three other common types of
relationships:
• Relationships that involve illustration
• Relationships that involve comparison
and contrast
• Relationships that involve cause and effect
These relationships all involve transitional
words and phrases, which are like signs on the
road that guide travelers.
ILLUSTRATION
Words That Show Illustration
Which item below is easier to understand?
A. Some common beliefs are really myths. Getting a chill
will not give you a cold.
B. Some common beliefs are really myths. For instance,
getting a chill will not give you a cold.
ILLUSTRATION
Words That Show Illustration
Which item below is easier to understand?
A. Some common beliefs are really myths. Getting a chill
will not give you a cold.
B. Some common beliefs are really myths. For instance,
getting a chill will not give you a cold.
Explanation
The words for instance make the second item easier to
understand. They make it clear that the belief a chill will lead to a
cold is an example of a myth. For instance and other words and
phrases like it are illustration words.
ILLUSTRATION
Words That Show Illustration
Illustration words indicate that an author will
provide one or more examples to develop and clarify
a given idea.
Here are some common words that show illustration:
Illustration Words
(for) example
(for) instance
such as
including
specifically
to be specific
(as an) illustration
to illustrate
one
once
ILLUSTRATION
Words That Show Illustration
In the sentences below, notice how the illustration
words signal that one or more examples are coming.
• Although they are children’s stories, famous fairy tales
such as “Little Red Riding Hood” and “Snow White” are
clearly filled with dark symbolic meanings.
• A number of famous historical figures, including
Beethoven, Charles Dickens, and Winston Churchill,
suffered from depression.
ILLUSTRATION
The Definition and Example Pattern
Definition and Example
Definition
Example
Example
The definition and example pattern of organization
includes just what its name suggests: a definition and one
or more examples.
ILLUSTRATION
The Definition and Example Pattern
See if you can arrange the following sentences in an order that
makes sense. Which sentence should come first? Second? Last?
A. For instance, anyone who has ever played a card game such as
hearts is familiar with the heuristic to “Get rid of high cards first.”
B. Informal problems often call for a heuristic—a rule of thumb that
suggests a course of action without guaranteeing an optimal solution.
C. Another example is the situation in which a student tries to decide
whether to take a particular course and follows the advice to “Ask
friends how they liked the instructor.”
ILLUSTRATION
The Definition and Example Pattern
Here is the logical order for the sentences on the last screen.
Informal problems often call for a heuristic—a rule of thumb that
suggests a course of action without guaranteeing an optimal solution.
For instance, anyone who has ever played a card game such as hearts
is familiar with the heuristic to “Get rid of high cards first.” Another
example is the situation in which a student tries to decide whether to
take a particular course and follows the advice to “Ask friends how they
liked the instructor.”
Explanation
The paragraph begins with a definition of heuristic. The second
and third sentences provide examples of the term. Each example
is signaled by an illustration word or phrase.
ILLUSTRATION
The Definition and Example Pattern
• Textbook authors often provide definitions of important
terms, followed by examples. They usually set off the
terms they are defining in italic or boldface type.
• When reading and taking notes on a textbook, always do two
things:
1 Underline key definitions.
2 Write an “Ex” in the margin next to a helpful example
for each definition.
ILLUSTRATION
The Definition and Example Pattern
Read the textbook paragraph below and then answer the questions.
(1)The planning fallacy refers to the fact that people consistently overestimate how
quickly and easily they will achieve a goal and underestimate the amount of time or
effort that will be required to reach that goal. (2)In a study that examined the planning
fallacy, college students were asked to list an academic project that had to be completed
within the next week and to estimate when they intended to begin the project, when they
expected to complete the project, and how many hours they expected to put into it. (3)A
week later, the students were asked if they had completed the project and when.
(4)Although all the students had estimated that they would complete the project
comfortably in the time indicated, one week later more than half the projects remained
incomplete. (5)Those that had been completed had typically taken, on average, nearly
five days longer than had been estimated. (6)So much for planning!
1. What term is being defined?
2. Which sentence contains the definition?
3. In which sentence does the example begin?
ILLUSTRATION
The Definition and Example Pattern
(1)The planning fallacy refers to the fact that people consistently overestimate how
quickly and easily they will achieve a goal and underestimate the amount of time or
effort that will be required to reach that goal. (2)In a study that examined the planning
fallacy, college students were asked to list an academic project that had to be completed
within the next week and to estimate when they intended to begin the project, when they
expected to complete the project, and how many hours they expected to put into it. (3)A
week later, the students were asked if they had completed the project and when.
(4)Although all the students had estimated that they would complete the project
comfortably in the time indicated, one week later more than half the projects remained
incomplete. (5)Those that had been completed had typically taken, on average, nearly
five days longer than had been estimated. (6)So much for planning!
1. What term is being defined?
2. Which sentence contains the definition?
3. In which sentence does the example begin?
planning fallacy
sentence 1
sentence 2
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Words That Show Comparison
Which item below is easier to understand?
A. As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force against the
water. The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. In a rocket
motor, forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate out the
tail end, propelling the rocket forward.
B. As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force against the
water. The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. Similarly, in
a rocket motor, forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate
out the tail end, propelling the rocket forward.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Words That Show Comparison
Which item below is easier to understand?
A. As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force against the
water. The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. In a rocket
motor, forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate out the
tail end, propelling the rocket forward.
B. As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force against the
water. The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. Similarly, in
a rocket motor, forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate
out the tail end, propelling the rocket forward.
Explanation
In the second item, the word similarly makes it clear that the
author is comparing two forces. Similarly and other words like it
are comparison words.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Words That Show Comparison
Comparison words signal similarities. Authors use a
comparison transition to show that a second idea is like the
first one in some way.
Here are some common words that show comparison:
Comparison Words
(just) as
(just) like
alike
same
both
equal(ly)
resemble
likewise
in like fashion
in like manner
similar(ly)
similarity
in a similar fashion
in a similar manner
(in) the same way
(in) common
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Words That Show Comparison
In the sentences below, notice how the comparison words
show that things are alike in some way.
• During the American Civil War, people in the North and
the South were equally anguished by the bloody division
of the country.
• Very young and very old people resemble one another in
their dependence upon those around them.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Words That Show Contrast
Which item below is easier to understand?
A. The movie was boring and pointless. It featured a talented
cast and an award-winning screenwriter.
B. The movie was boring and pointless even though it featured
a talented cast and an award-winning screenwriter.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Words That Show Contrast
Which item below is easier to understand?
A. The movie was boring and pointless. It featured a talented
cast and an award-winning screenwriter.
B. The movie was boring and pointless even though it featured
a talented cast and an award-winning screenwriter.
Explanation
The first item is puzzling. What connection does the writer intend
between the first and second sentence? The second item makes it clear
that the writer is disappointed that the movie fell short despite its cast
and screenwriter. Even though and words and phrases like it are
contrast words.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Words That Show Contrast
Contrast words signal that an author is pointing out
differences between subjects. Authors use them to show
how two things differ in one or more ways.
Here are some common words that show contrast:
Contrast Words
but
yet
however
although
nevertheless
still
instead (of)
in contrast
on the other hand
on the contrary
converse(ly)
opposite
even though
as opposed to
in spite of
despite
rather than
difference
different(ly)
differ (from)
unlike
while
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Words That Show Contrast
In the sentences below, notice how the contrast words signal
that one idea is different from another idea.
• In most Western cultures, it is considered normal to
marry for love. However, in places where arranged
marriages are the norm, it is assumed that love will
follow marriage.
• While mammals have internal mechanisms that regulate
body temperature, cold-blooded animals such as lizards
must regulate their temperature by external means, such
as basking on warm sunny rocks.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern
Comparison
A
is
like
Contrast
B
A
is
different B
from
The comparison-contrast pattern shows how
two things are alike or how they are different, or both.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern
See if you can arrange the following sentences in an order that
makes sense. Which sentence should come first? Second? Last?
A. However, gender differences remain in career choice and
development.
B. Women’s labor force participation is approaching that of men’s,
with 60 percent of adult women (versus 74 percent of men) in the
labor force.
C. At present, married women still subordinate their career goals to
their husbands’, especially when children are involved.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern
Here is the logical order for the sentences on the last screen.
Women’s labor force participation is approaching that of men’s, with
60 percent of adult women (versus 74 percent of men) in the labor force.
However, gender differences remain in career choice and development.
At present, married women still subordinate their career goals to their
husbands’, especially when children are involved.
Explanation
The first sentence introduces the idea that women’s labor force
participation is becoming comparable to that of men’s. The second
sentence presents the main idea, that gender differences remain. It
is introduced with the contrast word however. The final sentence
gives an example of a significant difference.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern
Read the textbook paragraph below and then answer the questions.
(1)Men and women, of course, often have different concerns, so we might
expect the content of their dreams to differ—and until recently, at least, that has
been true. (2)Typically, women have been more likely than men to dream about
children, family members, familiar characters, friendly interactions, household
objects, clothes, and indoor events. (3)In contrast, men have been more likely than
women to dream about strangers, weapons, violence, sexual activity, achievement,
and outdoor events. (4)But as the lives and concerns of the two sexes have become
more similar, so have their dreams. (5)In one recent study, the content of men’s
and women’s dreams bore a close resemblance. (6)Only two differences showed
up: Men were more likely to dream about behaving aggressively, while women
were more likely to dream about their anxieties.
1. Is the paragraph comparing, contrasting, or both?
2. What two things are being compared and/or contrasted?
3. What are three of the comparison and/or contrast signal words used in
the paragraph?
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern
Read the textbook paragraph below and then answer the questions.
(1)Men and women, of course, often have different concerns, so we might
expect the content of their dreams to differ—and until recently, at least, that has
been true. (2)Typically, women have been more likely than men to dream about
children, family members, familiar characters, friendly interactions, household
objects, clothes, and indoor events. (3)In contrast, men have been more likely than
women to dream about strangers, weapons, violence, sexual activity, achievement,
and outdoor events. (4)But as the lives and concerns of the two sexes have become
more similar, so have their dreams. (5)In one recent study, the content of men’s
and women’s dreams bore a close resemblance. (6)Only two differences showed
up: Men were more likely to dream about behaving aggressively, while women
were more likely to dream about their anxieties.
1. Is the paragraph comparing, contrasting, or both? Both
Men’s and
2. What two things are being compared and/or contrasted? women’s dreams
3. What are three of the comparison and/or contrast signal words used in
the paragraph?
Comparison words: similar, resemblance
Contrast words: different, differ, In contrast, But, differences, while
CAUSE AND EFFECT
Words That Show Cause and Effect
Which item below is easier to understand?
A. The best time to buy a new car is near the end of the month.
Car dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell.
B. The best time to buy a new car is near the end of the month
because car dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell.
CAUSE AND EFFECT
Words That Show Cause and Effect
Which item below is easier to understand?
A. The best time to buy a new car is near the end of the month.
Car dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell.
B. The best time to buy a new car is near the end of the month
because car dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell.
Explanation
The word because in the second item makes very clear just why
the end of the month is the best time to buy a car. Because and
words like it are cause and effect words.
CAUSE AND EFFECT
Words That Show Cause and Effect
Cause and effect words signal that the author is
explaining the reason why something happened or the
result of something happening.
Here are some common words that show cause and effect:
Cause and Effect Words
therefore
thus
(as a) consequence
consequently
due to
so
(as a) result
results in
leads (led) to
since
owing to
effect
cause
if…then
affect
because (of)
reason
explanation
accordingly
depend(s) on
CAUSE AND EFFECT
Words That Show Cause and Effect
In the sentences below, notice how the cause and effect
words introduce a reason for something or the result of
something.
• Young babies have weak necks and relatively heavy
heads. Consequently, it is important to support the
baby’s head firmly when you hold him or her.
• Do not refrigerate potatoes. The reason is that a potato’s
starch will turn to sugar at low temperatures, making the
vegetable taste odd.
CAUSE AND EFFECT
The Cause and Effect Pattern
Cause and Effect
Cause and Effect
Cause
Effect
Effect
Effect
Effect
Cause
Cause Cause
An author uses the cause and effect pattern to show
why something happens or the effects of something
that has happened.
CAUSE AND EFFECT
The Cause and Effect Pattern
See if you can arrange the following sentences in an order that
makes sense. Which sentence should come first? Second? Last?
A. Also, unemployment leads to an increased rate of attempted and
completed suicides.
B. Not only can it cause economic distress; it can result in health
problems and psychological difficulties as well.
C. Losing one’s job is difficult at best and devastating at worst.
CAUSE AND EFFECT
The Cause and Effect Pattern
Here is the logical order for the sentences on the last screen.
Losing one’s job is difficult at best and devastating at worst. Not only
can it cause economic distress; it can result in health problems and
psychological difficulties as well. Also, unemployment leads to an
increased rate of attempted and completed suicides.
Explanation
The paragraph begins with the general idea: “Losing one’s job is
difficult at best and devastating at worst.” Next comes a detailed
explanation of the results, signaled by cause and effect words.
ILLUSTRATION
The Cause and Effect Pattern
Read the textbook paragraph below and then answer the questions.
(1)During the 1950s and 1960s, airports, bus terminals, and train stations often charged
patrons to use the toilet. (2)People would have to pay a ten- to twenty-five-cent fee before
they entered a stall. (3)Owners hoped that the fee would help pay for the cost of keeping the
restrooms clean. (4)But for several reasons, pay toilets failed miserably. (5)For one thing,
they angered patrons. (6)People accustomed to accessing a restroom for free became upset
when they discovered they had to pay. (7)Many outraged bathroom-users vandalized the stalls
and trashed the rooms in response, making cleanup even more expensive. (8)In addition, pay
toilets caused more trouble than they were worth. (9)Employees had to be called in so often
to fix broken locks that companies gradually realized the extra work wasn’t worth a few more
dollars. (10)A final explanation why pay toilets failed is that they triggered lawsuits from
women’s groups who claimed the toilets were unfair because females were forced to pay
regardless while males could use the urinals for free. (11)Rather than spending money on
high maintenance and lawsuits, companies opened the bathrooms for free use.
1. What is the single effect being discussed in the paragraph?
2. What are the three causes discussed?
3. What three cause and effect words are used in the paragraph?
ILLUSTRATION
The Cause and Effect Pattern
Read the textbook paragraph below and then answer the questions.
(1)During the 1950s and 1960s, airports, bus terminals, and train stations often charged
patrons to use the toilet. (2)People would have to pay a ten- to twenty-five-cent fee before
they entered a stall. (3)Owners hoped that the fee would help pay for the cost of keeping the
restrooms clean. (4)But for several reasons, pay toilets failed miserably. (5)For one thing,
they angered patrons. (6)People accustomed to accessing a restroom for free became upset
when they discovered they had to pay. (7)Many outraged bathroom-users vandalized the stalls
and trashed the rooms in response, making cleanup even more expensive. (8)In addition, pay
toilets caused more trouble than they were worth. (9)Employees had to be called in so often
to fix broken locks that companies gradually realized the extra work wasn’t worth a few more
dollars. (10)A final explanation why pay toilets failed is that they triggered lawsuits from
women’s groups who claimed the toilets were unfair because females were forced to pay
regardless while males could use the urinals for free. (11)Rather than spending money on
high maintenance and lawsuits, companies opened the bathrooms for free use.
1. What is the single effect being discussed in the paragraph?
The failure of pay toilets
A. They angered patrons. B. They
caused more trouble than they were
2. What are the three causes discussed?
worth. C. They triggered lawsuits
from women’s groups.
3. What three cause and effect words are used in the paragraph?
reasons, caused, explanation
CHAPTER REVIEW
In this chapter, you learned about three kinds of relationships that authors
use to make their ideas clear:
• Definitions and examples
— To help readers understand the important ideas and terms in a
subject, textbook authors often take time to include key
definitions (often setting them off in italic or boldface) and
examples of those definitions. When reading a textbook, it is
usually a good idea to mark off both definitions and examples.
(Underline each definition, and put Ex in the margin next to each
example.)
— Transition words that signal the definition and example pattern
include for example, for instance, to illustrate, and such as.
• Comparison and/or contrast
— Authors often discuss how two things are alike or how they are
different, or both.
— Transition words that signal comparisons include alike and
similar.
— Transition words that signal contrasts include but, however, and
in contrast.
(Chapter Review continues on next slide)
CHAPTER REVIEW, continued
• Cause and effect
— Authors often discuss the reasons why something happens or the
effects of something that has happened.
— Transition words that signal causes include reason and because.
— Transition words that signal effects include therefore,
consequently, and as a result.
Note that pages 212–216 in the textbook list and offer practice in all the
transitions and patterns of organization covered in “Relationships I” and
“Relationships II.”
The next chapter—Chapter 6—will sharpen your ability to make inferences
in reading.