HUMAN BIOLOGY
WHY?
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To learn about ourselves, our culture
To learn the relationship between form & function
Study the parts to understand the whole body
To become familiar with terminology that describes
the structures & processes associated with the
human body
CULTURE & the reasons for it
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CULTURE = Social influences human behavior
Why is culture important?
To learn from the experiences of others
Its carried on through language & “big brains”
Its faster acting & easier to observe than the
evolution of anatomy & physiology
WHAT IS BIOLOGY?
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Biology comes from the Greek
Bios = life
Logos = to study
Biology is the study of life!
What Is the Meaning Of Life?
Top 7 ways to tell the living from the nonliving
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Cellular Organization
Reproduction
Metabolism
Homeostasis
Heredity
Responsiveness
Able to Grow & Develop
If It Does NOT meet ALL 7…
•ITS NOT
ALIVE!
CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
• All living things are made up of 1 or more cells
• Cells = smallest unit capable of all life functions
REPRODUCTION
• How all life forms make more of their own kind
from 1 generation to the next
• All living things (ORGANISMS) can reproduce
METABOLISM
• Sum of all chemical reactions in an organism
• Chemistry is necessary for life!
• Balancing those chemical reactions =
HOMEOSTASIS
HOMEOSTASIS
• The ability to maintain a relatively constant internal
environment (at all levels of body organization)
despite changes in the outside environment
EXAMPLES of HOMEOSTASIS
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Body temperature
Water-mineral balance
Blood pressure
Sleep-wake cycle
Blood pH
Any physiological process with a negative-feedback
system of control
Why Is Homeostasis Such A Big Deal?
• Physiological processes can function only under a
limited range of conditions
• “Goldilocks” factor
• EX--- Body temperature
98.6º F or 37º C
HEREDITY
• All organisms pass on traits from parent to offspring
• GENES = sets of inherited instructions for making
proteins
• MUTATION = any change in a gene (DNA)
• DNA = code on genes for making proteins
RESPONSIVENESS
(irritability)
• 1 Detect information about the environment
• 2 Process this information
• 3 Respond appropriately
GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
• GROWTH = replace worn out cells;
increase in size
• DEVELOPMENT = advance, fulfill with time;
mature
METABOLISM
• Sum of all chemical reactions within living cells
= catabolism  anabolism
Catabolism = break down
(digest food into protein)
Anabolism = build up
(rearrange proteins into new cells)
CELLS
• Functional & structural building block of life
• This makes them the
SMALLEST LIVING THINGS!
CELLS HAVE 3 THINGS IN ALL
COMMON
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Made of Cytoplasm + Nucleus enclosed by a Cell
Membrane
1. Cytoplasm = fluid in a cell
2. Nucleus = cell’s control center, “brain”
3. Cell Membrane = outermost part of a cell,
the cell’s “skin”
The Order of Perspectives
on Human Biology (HB)
small
big
1 Atoms
2 Molecules
3 Organelles
4 Cells
5 Tissues
6 Organs
7 Organ systems
8 **Organisms—YOU!
9 Populations
10 Ecosystem
11 Biosphere
The Order of Perspectives
on Human Biology (HB)
1 Atoms
NOT
2 Molecules
ALIVE!
3 Organelles
---------------------------- 4 Cells ----------------------------------5 Tissues
6 Organs
ITS VERY
7 Organ systems
ALIVE!
8 **Organisms—YOU!
9 Populations
10 Ecosystem
11 Biosphere
HUMAN BIOLOGY IS
EVERYWHERE!
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Internet
Magazines
TV News
Newspapers
Books
HUMAN BIOLOGY IS EVERDAY
INVOLVING EVERYONE!
• Cloning
• Human Genome Project (HUGO)
• Curing AIDS
• Saving the rainforest
• Genetic engineering to cure genetic diseases
EX- MS, CF, Dyslexia, Diabetes, Some cancers
HUMAN BIOLOGY IS EVERBODY!
• In 1999, world population exceeded 6 billion!
• Not enough space, food, energy, & resources for
everyone is a very SERIOUS problem.
RAINFORESTS & HUMANS
• Destroying rainforests to make space to live affects
plants & animals
• Half of the world’s species live in the rainforests
• Tropical rainforests are currently being destroyed at
a rate greater than 1 acre/ second!
• At this rate, the last tree will fall by 2050!
RAINFORESTS & HUMANS
• This will destroy over 1 million species, making it
the greatest extinction since the dinosaurs of 65
million years ago!
• Who knows what potential medicines, foods,
plastics, and genetic material we are losing?
• Biologists seek balance between the need for land &
protecting ALL life.
MORE PEOPLE MEANS MORE
FOOD IS NEEDED
• Biologists seek new crops to grow more efficiently
in tropical soils & without too much fertilizer or
pesticides
• Genetic engineers place plant genes into other plants
to form new crops that are germs & insect resistant
AND bear fruit many times a year!
EX- New crops are frost resistant due to inserted genes
Insect resistant crops decrease the amount of bug
spray used (saves $)
HUMAN BIOLOGISTS SEEK
CURES
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AIDS
Cancer
CF (cystic fibrosis)
MS (multiple sclerosis)
MD (muscular dystrophy)
Diabetes
Heart Problems (cardiopathies)
Many others
AIDS
• Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
• Since 1981 (when 1st recognized) 50 million people
have been infected
• 14 million already dead, 2 million die per year
• Caused by HIV = Human Immunodeficiency Virus
• It is an STD, also spread by other body fluids
• NOT including urine (pee) , feces (poop) & sweat.
HUMAN BIOLOGISTS SEEK
CURES
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Yes, AIDS-like diseases also affect other animals
FIV = Feline Immunodeficiency Virus
FIV ONLY affects cats
It is highly contagious among cats
FIV is curable
Humans do not catch it.
Some forms of HIV can spread to other primates
(chimps, monkeys, bonobos, etc.)
CANCER
• Cellular growth disorder
• When cells do not know when to stop reproducing
• Can be prematurely set off by chemicals
(esp. in tobacco)
• Many human cancers are know curable, thanks to
HUGO (HUman GenOme project)
• We will see this in detail in later chapters
CF
• Cystic Fibrosis
• Fatal disorder in which abnormally thick mucus
builds up in many organs, esp. the lungs
• Too much mucus, not enough breathing
• Caused by a defective gene
• Researchers try to treat fatal CF with
GENE THERAPY
GENE THERAPY
• Gene therapy = replacing a defective genes with a
healthy, normal one
• This treatment is used by GENETIC ENGINEERS
sometimes called GENE THERAPISTS.
• This treatment may 1 day cure most genetic
diseases, like CF, MS, MD, diabetes, & dyslexia.
• The difficulty is not finding healthy genes, but
introducing the normal genes into defective DNA.
1-2 REVIEW
1 Human Biology is a large part of everday life
2 Addressing a growing human population,
environmental damage, & human disease demand an
answer we are gradually finding.
HOW IS HUMAN BIOLOGY
STUDIED?
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Scientific Method
Observation --- using the 5 senses
Hypothesis---educated guess
Prediction that is falsifiable (can be proven wrong)
Test (Experiment)
Conclusion
OBSERVATION
• Native American peoples today have smaller teeth
than the skulls of the same peoples 2000 years ago.
HYPOTHESIS
• Native American peoples needed larger teeth to eat
grains and unprocessed foods before industry
entered the USA and made other foods easier to
obtain.
PREDICTION
IF the hypothesis is TRUE…
• Comparing teeth measurements on the skulls of
ancient Shawnees to those of modern Shawnees on
OK reservations will prove that the modern teeth are
smaller.
• IF the hypothesis is NOT TRUE…
TEST
• Perform an EXPERIMENT
• Experiment = test to prove or disprove a hypothesis
• Apply the comparative method to the Sioux,
Iroquois, or Chickasaw Tribes.
• Ask “Why are the Shawnee different?” if they prove
to differ in teeth size compared to other tribes.
• Research Shawnee diet and eating habits.
CONCLUSION
• Evidence from the experiment either does or does
not support the hypothesis.
• In the comparative teeth experiment…
• The evidence actually does support the hypothesis.
• From this we could form a CONCLUSIVE
STATEMENT
CONCLUSIVE STATEMENT
• Comparing teeth size in 2000 year old Shawnees to
the modern day Shawnee proves that Shawnee teeth
have gotten smaller.
Example of the Scientific Method
Observation: Eating red grapes induces labor in rats
Hypothesis: Caused by an agent in red grapes
Prediction: If the hypothesis is true, then pregnant rats
given red grape juice (experimental treatment) will
go into labor before rats given white grape juice
(control treatment) go into labor.
Test: Do the experiment
Conclusion: Based on the results of the experiment
THEORY & LAW
• THEORY = explanation based on a set of related
hypotheses that have been tested & confirmed many
times
EX- Theory of Evolution
• LAW = theory or a set of theories generally accepted
as scientifically true & accurate
“Some theories are so strongly supported that likelihood
of their being rejected in the future is small”
EX – Law of Gravity
SCIENTIFIC TRUTH
• SCIENTIFIC TRUTH…
“There is no absolute certainty in a scientific
theory. The possibility always remains that future
evidence will cause a scientific theory to be revised
or rejected. A scientist’s acceptance of a theory is
always provisional.”
EC- Define “FAITH”
ATOMS
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Smallest units of matter
Cannot be broken down further by chemical means
Made of 3 subatomic particles…
1 Proton
2 Electron
3 Neutron
SUBATOMIC CHART
Neutrons
Protons
Electrons
Mass
1
1
~0
Charge
0
+1
-1
Symbol
nº
p+
e-
SUBATOMIC MASS & CHARGE
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Subatomic mass is measured in a unit called “amu”
amu stands for “atomic mass unit”
1 amu = the mass of 1 p+
1 amu = 1/1,660,600,000,000,000,000,000,000 gram
Roughly 1.7 septillionth of a paper clip’s mass!
The +1 charge of the p+ and the –1 charge of the eare relative charges. There’s no actual unit (like volt)
• Actual charges: +1.67x10 -19 coulombs (C) for p+
-1.67x10 -19 coulombs for e-
NUCLEUS
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Nucleus = center of the atom
Always has p+…
Thus it always has an overall + charge.
Sometimes it contains neutrons (NO charge)
ORBITALS
• A “cloud” or haze of orbiting e- around the nucleus
• AKA “Energy levels, energy shells,
e- levels, or e- shells”
• Electrons ALWAYS orbit the nucleus
• Electrons are NEVER found inside the nucleus
ALL ATOMS ARE ELECTRICALLY
BALANCED (electrically neutral)
• There is ALWAYS 1 e- for every p+
• Thus…
# p+ = # e• EX2 p+
+
2 e- = 0 (electrically neutral)
ELEMENTS
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Defined as a pure substance of only 1 type of atom
There are currently 114 known elements
Make up the “Periodic Table of the Elements”
They differ in their number of protons (p+)
ATOMIC NUMBER = number of protons (p+)
Atomic # = # p+
ATOMIC NUMBER
• Atomic # = # p+
• EX- Hydrogen has 1 p+, Helium has 2 p+
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Thus… 1H and 2He
• H has the atomic # 1, He has the atomic # 2
ELEMENTS IN THE HUMAN BODY
• There are about 20
• Most common are:
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Element
Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Oxygen (O)
Nitrogen (N)
Phosphorus (P)
Atomic #
6
1
8
7
15
ATOMIC WEIGHT (or mass)
• Atomic weight (mass) refers to the weight (mass) of
the nucleus; or the mass of all those p+ and nº
• Atomic weight = #p+ + #nº
• RECALL… the nucleus is made of p+ and nº
• p+ and nº each weigh 1 amu (atomic mass unit)
• Adding a p+ adds BOTH +1 amu and +1 C to the
nucleus.
• Adding a nº adds ONLY +1 amu. There is no extra
charge added (after all neutrons are neutral, O C)
• So….
ATOMIC WEIGHT (or mass)
• Atomic weight = #p+ + #nº
• More p+ means more + charge
• More nº just means it weighs more
• Neutrons are atomic fat!!
• They just add weight and nothing else.
ELEMENTS IN THE HUMAN BODY
• There are about 20
• Most common are:
Element
Atomic #
• Carbon (C)
6
• Hydrogen (H)
1
• Oxygen (O)
8
• Nitrogen (N)
7
• Phosphorus (P)
15
• Atomic weight = #p+ + #nº
Atomic Weight
12
1
16
14
31
ATOMIC DATA
• How to quickly find …
• # p+ [= atomic number]
• # e- [= atomic number also]
RECALL…all atoms are balanced so #p+ = #e-
• # nº [atomic weight – atomic number = #nº]
(#p+ + #nº) -#p+
= #nº
EX(2
+ 3) -2
= 3nº
ISOTOPES
• Isotope = An element that does not have the typical
number of neutrons
EX- Natural carbon is 12C.
11C, 13C, and 14C are isotopes (as in 14C dating)
(sometimes less nº, sometimes more nº)
• Often unstable causing the nucleus to disintegrate
• This causes the emission of high energy particles
(like X rays) known as RADIATION.
MOLECULES & COMPOUNDS
• Molecule = Group of atoms chemically joined
• Compound = substance made of more than 1 kind of
element
EX- 2 oxygen atoms 1 oxygen gas molecule
(O+O)

(O2)
2 hydrogen atoms + 1 oxygen atom  H2O (water)
Water is BOTH a molecule & a compound.
3 KINDS OF CHEMICAL BONDS
• 1 Ionic = steals e- (attraction of +/-)
• 2 Covalent = shares e• 3 Hydrogen = polarity
IONIC BONDS
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Steals e- to form IONS that attract each other
ION = atom with an overall +/- charge
Cation = + ions
Anion = -- ions
• EX- Na+ attracts Cl- to form NaCl….table salt
NaCl is an example of an IONIC compound
COVALENT BONDS
• Covalent bonds form when atoms share e• EX- Carbon shares e- with 4 hydrogen atoms
H
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H--- C ---H
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H
This is CH4 (methane)
HYDROGEN BONDING
• Weakest bond, occurs between POLAR molecules
• Polar molecules have 1 + end and 1 – end, sort of
like a bar magnet or a AA battery.
• They can bond to themselves in chains.
• EX• +[||||||||||]--
+[||||||||||]--
+[||||||||||]--
WATER IS POLAR!
• Water bonds to itself in chains
H
H
H
+
O- +
O- +
H
H
H
H
O- +
H
O-
WHY IS WATER WET?
(yes, there really is a reason why!)
• Because it is both ADHESIVE & COHESIVE!
• Cohesive = it bonds to itself (in drops)
• Adhesive = it bonds to other things (like glass)
H
H
H
H
+
O- +
O- +
O- +
OH
H
H
H
Review the 3 Kinds of Chemical Bonds
• 1 Ionic- By gaining or losing e-, ions of opposite
charges are attracted to each other
• 2 Covalent- atoms sharing e-
• 3 Hydrogen- weak bond between the oppositely
charged poles (ends) of polar molecules
PREDICTING CHEMICAL BONDS
• Which chemicals will bond and which bond they
form is not by chance.
• It depends on the # of e- needed to complete the
outermost electron orbital.
• VALENCE electrons = the outermost electrons
• This is the basic idea of the Octet Rule
THE OCTET RULE
• Oct- = 8
A) Inner orbitals MUST fill first
B) 1st orbital holds 2 e- max
C) 2nd orbital holds 8 e- max
D) 3rd orbital holds 8 e- max
WHAT DETERMINES IF AN ATOM
IS BALANCED OR STABLE?
• By using the term ATOM, we mean it is
BALANCED or ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL
• BALANCED means the #p+ = #e• All (+)s plus all (-)s = 0, they cancel each other out
• STABLE means the chemicals will not REACT
(will not try to form any type of bond).
• STABLE = they have a FULL VALENCE
INERT GASES
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Inert = not active, will not react
Have a completed outer (valence) e- orbital is stable
Last column on right in Periodic Table of Elements
AKA Noble Gases
INERT GASES (He)
• Helium (He): atomic # = 2
• 2 p+ and 2 e• 2 e- in inner orbital, He is chemically non-reactive
INERT GASES (Ne)
• Neon (Ne): atomic # = 10
• 2 e- in inner orbital, 8 e- in 2nd orbital
• Ne is chemically non-reactive
IONS
• An ion is an atom (or group of atoms) that carries an
electric charge (+/-)
• Formed by too many or too little e• Cation = + ion
• Anion = -- ion
• EX- Na+, Cl- , NH4+ , C2H3O2-
SODIUM CATION
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Sodium : atomic # = 11
11 p+ and 11 e2 e- in 1st orbital, 8 e- in 2nd orbital & 1 e- extra
The extra e- is lost (stolen), leaving the sodium
cation with a net positive charge…Na +
CHLORINE ANION
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Chlorine: atomic # = 17
17 p+ and 17 e2 e- in 1st orbital, 8 e- in 2nd orbital, 7 e- extra
7 extra e- fill the 3rd orbital
It needs 1 more e- to be chemically stable
Chlorine anion attracts an extra e- to complete its
valence orbital  has a net negative charge (Cl-)
OPPOSITES ATTRACT
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+ and – charged ions attract each other
Na+ joins Cl- to become NaCl (table salt)
The molecule is both BALANCED & STABLE.
This is an IONIC BOND
The bond comes from the mutual attraction of
oppositely charged ions
• e- pass from 1 ion to another
• They are NOT shared, more like STOLEN!
COVALENT BONDS
• When e- are shared between atoms
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HYDROGEN
Hydrogen: atomic # = 1
1p+ and 1 eNeeds 1 more e- to complete 1st orbital
COVALENT BONDS
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CARBON
Carbon: atomic # = 6
6 p+ and 6 e6 e- is enough to fill the 1st orbital (2 e-) with 4 eleft over for the 2nd orbital
• It needs 4 more e- to complete it valence.
COVALENT SINGLE BONDS
• When 1 e- is shared, shown by 1 line
• 1 carbon shares its valent e- with 4 hydrogens
H
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H--- C ---H
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H
This is CH4 (methane)
COVALENT BONDS
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OXYGEN
Oxygen: atomic # = 8
8p+ and 8 eInner orbital filled with 2 e6 e- left over for 2nd orbital
It needs 2 more e- to complete the 2nd orbital
DOUBLE COVALENT BONDS
• When 2 pairs of electrons are shared
• Shown by 2 lines (=)
• EX- O=C=O……CO2……….Carbon dioxide
O=O……….O2…………Diatomic oxygen
H—O—N—O….HNO3….Nitric acid
||
H
Diatomic = 2 alike atoms bonded together (N2 ,O2, H2)
HYDROGEN BONDS
• Relatively weak bond between a positively charged
hydrogen ion (H+) in a molecule and a
negatively charged ion in another molecule
• EX- RECALL, polar water forms cohesive chains.
HH
O …negative O end attracted by positive H end
HH
O
POLAR MOLECULES
• Polar molecules = molecules with an unequal
distribution of electrical charge (more e- on 1 end)
• EX- water, isopropyl alcohol, hydrogen peroxide
NONPOLAR MOLECULES
• Nonpolar molecules- molecules that have an equal
distribution of electrical charges (e-)
• EX- gasoline, oil, wax, fatty acids
RATING THE STRENGTHS OF
CHEMICALS BONDS
• GOLD--------Covalent
• SILVER-------Ionic
• BRONZE-----Hydrogen
REVIEW
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All matter is made of atoms
Atoms consist of e-, p+, & nº
Molecule= group of atoms bound by covalent bonds
H bonding occurs between polar molecules
Ion = atom with a charge
Opposites charges may form ionic bonds
Sec 2-1 Q1-5 pg 30
WHAT IS pH?
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Water has 2 ions
H+ plus OH- = H2O
H+ cation is a positive hydrogen ion
OH- anion is called a hydroxide or hydroxyl group
pH is a way of counting those H+ cations
POTENZ H+
• The H in pH stands for H+ (or hydrogen cation)
• The p in pH stands for “potenz”
• Potenz is the German term for
“the negative power of {H+}”
• When {H+} increases, {OH-} decreases
• It’s a fraction!
• {H+} x {OH-} = 10-14 or 1/100,000,000,000,000
THE pH SCALE
• Think of pH as asking
“How many H+ are in a solution?”
• The pH scale refers to {H+} only
• The pH scale runs from 0-14
• <7 = acid, more H+
• 7 =neutral, like water because it has both H+ & OH• >7 = base or alkaline, less H+
THE pH SCALE
0---------------------------7----------------------------14
Acid
Base
H+, OHH+, OH-
Neutral
(H2O or HOH)
H+ = OH-
THE pH SCALE
The pH UNIT
• Each pH unit represents a factor of 10
• EXThe pH 6 is 100x more acidic than the pH 8
(8-6 = 2…102 … 100)
Try this…Item A = pH 9, Item B = pH 5
Which Item is more acidic and by how much?
pH IN THE HUMAN BODY
• The body must maintain the pH of stuff within a
narrow range limits for the normal functioning of
physiological processes
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Blood pH………………….7.2-7.4
Saliva (spit) pH……………7
Cytoplasm………………….7.2
Stomach juices pH…………2
• Lysosome* pH………………4-5
• Small intestine pH………….8
* cell’s digestive enzyme sac--digests glucose (#1 human fuel)
WATER
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Covers 75% of the planet Earth
Is molecularly 67% of the human body
Polar ions dissolve well in it, after all…
Water is the UNIVERSAL SOLVENT, because
most things will dissolve in it.
• Has a high heat of evaporation  heat constancy
• Water is not lost easily = body temp. remains stable
OTHER MOLECULES
• Other molecules are much, much bigger than water
• EX- proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, DNA
• These are ORGANIC molecules…
they all contain carbon (C)
• Sec 2-2 Q1-5 pg 33
ORGANIC MOLECULES
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Always contain carbon (C)
NO C, NO LIFE! All life on Earth is C based
C’s 4 bonding sites allow life to be possible.
Life on other planets SHOULD also be C based.
If not, they may be silicon (Si) based as it too has 4
bonding sites.
• Note the location of C and Si on the Periodic Table.
ORGANIC MOLECULES
• Always contain carbon (C )
• Usually also contain hydrogen (H), oxygen (O),
&/or nitrogen (N)
• C and others are usually in long covalent chains
• EX- carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, enzymes, &
nucleic acids
CARBOHYDRATES
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Ratio of C:H:O = 1:2:1
EX- C1H2O1 or C3H6O3
Often abbreviated as CHO
May exist as single molecules or in complex chains
MONOSACCHARIDES
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Simple sugars
Mono = 1, saccharide = sugar
Sugar names end in –ose
Glucose- C6H12O6---the basic plant sugar
Fructose- in fruits like pears, pineapples
Galactose- in plants and milk
MONOSACCHARIDES
DISACCHARIDES
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Are double sugars
Di- means 2
Monosaccharides + monosaccharides = disaccharide
Sucrose – some fruits
Lactose – in milk
Maltose – in (malt) chocolate
DISACCHARIDES
POLYSACCHARIDES
• Polysaccharides are CHOs that exist as long chains
of monosaccharides.
• Poly- = many
• EX- Starch- in potatoes
• Glycogen-stored body energy (not exactly fat; close)
• Cellulose- pulpy stuff from plants; makes paper
• Chitin (KI’ ten)- hard fiber found in animal shells,
insect exoskeletons (shells) & in the cell walls
of fungi (mold & mildew)
POLYSACCHARIDES
CHO COMPLEXITY
• CHOs are divided into 2 groups:
Simple CHOs & Complex CHOs
• Simple CHOs include both monosaccharides and
disaccharides
• Complex CHOs include polysaccharides
SIMPLE CHOs
• Covalent bonds hold ALL monosaccharides together
• Glucose is the most important simple CHO!
• Glucose (C6H12O6) is the primary fuel for humans!
(it’s the only fuel source used by the brain!)
• Glucose is made by plants during photosynthesis
• Glucose is made of 6 C molecules that form a ring
when they are dissolved in water.
EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE CHOs
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Mono- + Mono- = Diglucose + fructose = SUCROSE
glucose + glucose = MALTOSE
glucose + galactose = LACTOSE
COMPLEX CHOs
• These are polysaccharides = long chains of
monosaccharides joined by covalent bonds
• They serve as stored energy in plants (starch) &
animals (glycogen)
• Humans store glycogen in the liver & muscles
• May be converted back into glucose when energy is
needed
COMPLEX CHOs
• Some polysaccharides are rigid structural materials:
EX- Cellulose in plants, Chitin in arthropod shells
• Mammals cannot free glucose from cellulose alone
• We need help from bacteria in the post-stomach
digestive tract to break down cellulose fibers
• Cellulose fibers are what we call “roughage”
• It is truly rough to digest—like the strings in celery
REVIEW
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pH scale 0-14, 0 = acid (H+), 14 = base (OH-)
7 = neutral (H2O or HOH) has both H+ & OHNo C, No water, NO LIFE!
C,H,O,N make organic molecules = long chains
Mono-, disaccharides are simple CHOs
Polysaccharides are complex CHOs
CHOs give people energy
Glucose is the primary human fuel
LIPIDS
• Type of fat
• These are non-polar molecules
• Nonpolar=equal distribution of electrical charge (e-)
NONPOLAR REPELS WATER
• Nonpolar molecules never dissolve in water
• EX- water will not dissolve oil, gas, or wax
• Hydrophobic-(fears water) won’t dissolve in H2O
• Hydrophilic- (loves water) easily dissolves in H2O
LAW OF POLARITY
• Like dissolves in like
• Polar dissolves in polar ONLY
• Nonpolar dissolves in nonpolar ONLY
• “Water and oil don’t mix!”
3 TYPES OF LIPIDS
ESSENTIAL TO HUMANS
• 1 Triglycerides
• 2 Phospholipids
• 3 Steroids
TRIGLYCERIDES
• Made of a Glycerol head and 3 Fatty Acid tails
• May be saturated or unsaturated
SATURATED FATTY ACIDS
• The saturated fatty acid tails are C chains crammed
full or “saturated” with hydrogen atoms .
• Saturated fats (EX-butter) are solid at room temp.
• Too much is VERY unhealthy!
UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
• A double covalent bond exists between at least 1
pair of Cs (where Hs could bond with the C)
• C=C
• Unsaturated fats (EX-olive oil) -liquid at room temp.
• MUCH healthier (hydrogenated vegetable oil)
POLYUNSATURATED
FATTY ACIDS
• Unsaturated fats with fatty acid chains containing
more than 1 double covalent bond
• Poly- = many……EX- C=C=C=C
• Healthiest of all!
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
•
•
•
•
Glycerol head,2 fatty acids + phosphate group (PO4)
Glycerol & fatty acids are nonpolar (hydrophobic)
Phosphate groups are polar (hydrophilic)
A cell membrane (cell’s skin) is made of a double
layer of phospholipids = phospholipid bilayer
STEROIDS
•
•
•
•
4 C rings + a functional group ( R)
Many different kinds
Important in reproductive maturation & metabolism
EX- Estrogen, testosterone, cholesterol
• NO FAT, NO SEX!
PROTEINS
• PROTEINS = chains of AMINO ACIDS (AA)
• Proteins are the building blocks of most body
structures (hair, cells, muscle, bone…)
• Most common organic molecule..its even in comets
• Found in ALL life.
AMINO ACIDS
• Chainlike molecules with a central C bonded to:
•
•
•
•
1
2
3
4
Amino group (NH2)
Carboxyl group (COOH)
a single hydrogen atom (H)
Side functional group (R )
THE AMINO ALPHABET
• There are 20 amino acids important to biology
• There are 26 letters in the English alphabet
• Like how the order and amount of letters used
determine which word made, so the order and
amount of AA used determine which protein is
made.
• What words are made from T,C,A?
NUCLEIC ACIDS
• Nucleic acids = Long chains of smaller molecules
called NUCLEOTIDES
• Nucleotides have 3 parts:
• 1 sugar (-ose)
• 2 base (OH-, the opposite of an acid)
• 3 phosphate group (PO4)
2 TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
• 1 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
• 2 RNA (ribonucleic acid)
DNA
• DNA has 2 strands of nucleotides that spiral around
each other.
• This is called a double helix
• Shape was discovered by Watson & Crick in 1953
• The strands are held together by H bonds between
bases across from each other forming
“the rungs of the twisted ladder.”
CHROMOSOMES ARE DNA
• Chromosomes are made up of very long strands of
DNA, which is the code on genes containing the
instructions for making proteins
RNA
• Single strand of nucleotides
• Plays several roles in cells, esp. in making protein
ATP
• ATP = a nucleotide called adenosine triphosphate
• It’s a single nucleotide with 2 extra, high
energy-storing phosphate (PO4) groups
• It stores energy ONLY TEMPORARILY, like a
battery, between the 2nd & 3rd PO4’s.
•
A-PO4-PO4
PO4
• When we catabolize food, energy is released.
• Energy is captured & stored in ATP,
later used to operate the body’s individual cells.
REVIEW
• Organic componds (C) are found in living things.
• CHOs, like glucose, are energy sources & some are
used as structural materials in organisms.
• Lipids are nonpolar molecules that store energy;
found in cell membranes as phosphlipids.
• Proteins are chains of AA, The AA sequence
determines a protein’s shape & function.
• Nucleic acids store & transmit heredity info.
• ATP is the main energy currency of cells
• Sec 2-3 Q 1-5 pg 37
WHAT GOOD ARE PROTEINS?
• ENZYME BOOK CH 2-4?
CYTOLOGY
• Cyte- = cell
• -ology = study of
• CYTOLOGY = study of cells
FOUNDERS OF CYTOLOGY
•
•
•
•
•
Robert Hooke
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
Mattias Schleiden
Theodor Schwann
Rudolph Virchow
ROBERT HOOKE
• In 1665 observed slices of cork under a microscope
• He saw little boxes
• He named these boxes “cells,” because they
reminded him of the small rooms where monks
lived inside monastaries.
ANTON van LEEUWENHOEK
• Used a microscope to observe drops of rain water
• He discovered little creatures living there!
• He named these creatures “animalcules,” which
means “tiny animals.”
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF
MEASUREMENTS
•
•
•
•
•
Abbreviated SI
Same thing as the metric system
It is a decimal system
All units are based upon powers of 10
WHY?
BRIEF SI TABLE
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Meter = base unit for measuring distance
Meter literally means “measure”________________
kilo- = 1,000
-meter = 1
centi- = .01 or 1/100
milli- = .001 or 1/1000
micro- = .000001 or 1/1,000,000 (1 millionth)
nano- = .000000001 or 1/1,000,000,000 (1 billionth)
SI SYMBOLS
•
•
•
•
•
•
km = kilometer
meter = 3.???ft
cm = centimeter
mm = millimeter
µm = micrometer
nm = nanometer
CHARACTERISTICS OF
MICROSCOPES
• Two Types of Microscopes
• 1 Light microscopes
• 2 Electron microscopes
LIGHT MICROSCOPES
• Light passes through one or more lenses to
produce an enlarged image of a specimen or
MICROGRAPH
• MICROGRAPH = an image produced by a
microscope
MAGNIFICATION
• Ability to make an image appear larger than its
actual size
• EX- Magnification value of 200x means the image
is 200 times larger than the actual specimen
RESOLUTION
• A measure of the clarity of an image
• RECALL…As magnification increases,
resolution decreases!
•
The bigger the image, the blurrier it gets!
ELECTRON MICROSCOPES
• Forms an image of a specimen using a beam of
electrons instead of light
• No cell can survive an e- microscope as specimen
preparation requires a type of staining & being
placed in a vacuum (&/or being sliced!)
• TWO TYPES
• 1 TEM = transmission e- microscope
• 2 SEM = scanning e- microscope
TEM
• Transmission e- microscope
• The e- beam is aimed at a slice of a specimen
stained with metal ions
• TEM micrographs are always black & white
SEM
• Scanning e- microscope
• The e- beam is aimed at a specimen coated with
metal ions
• SEM micrographs are 3D, usually B&W, but can be
artificially colored
STM
• Scanning Tunneling Microscope
• Uses a needle-like probe to measure differences in
voltage caused by e- s that “leak,”or tunnel,
from the surface of a specimen
• A computer tracks the movement of the probe
• STM micrographs are 3D and in color
• STMs can be used to study living specimens
• You can even see individual atoms!
MICROSCOPE REVIEW
• Microscopes enable us to examine the details of cell
structure & to understand how organisms function.
• Scientists use the SI system to measure the size of
objects
• Light microscopes have a low magnification & can
be used to examine living cells.
• Electron microscopes have a high magnification, but
cannot be used to study living cells
• The STM uses a computer to generate 3D images of
a specimen.
• Sec 3-1 Q1-5 pg 54
CELL THEORISTS
• Mattias Schleiden-• German botanist in 1838 concluded that a plant was
composed entirely of cells
• Theodor Schwann-• German zoologist who claimed that animals were
also made up of cells
• Rudolph Virchow-• German physician who determined that cells come
only from other cells
CELL THEORY
• Based on the combined observations of
Schleiden, Schwann, & Virchow
• All living things are made of one or more cells
• Cells are the basic unit of structure & function
• All cells arise from pre-existing cells
CELLS MUST BE SMALL
• Small cells work more efficiently than large cells
• All substances that enter or leave a cell must cross
the cell’s surface
• If the cell’s surface-to-area ratio is too low,
substances cannot move through the cell quickly
enough to meet the cell’s needs.
• Substances do not need to travel as far to reach the
center of a smaller cell.
• This is why smaller things are more efficient (ants).
CELL FEATURES
• There are many parts needed to make up a
functioning cell.
• These “parts” are referred to as cellular features or
organelles (meaning ‘little organs’)
CELL MEMBRANE
• Outer boundary, “skin”
• Encloses the cell & separates its interior from its
outer surroundings
• Regulates what enters & leaves the cell
CYTOPLASM
• Is the interior of a cell
• It is mostly water, so it is very fluid
CYTOSKELETON
• A collection of connected microscopic protein fibers
that suspends other cell structures within the
cytoplasm
• Like the metal “skeleton” of a skyscraper,
only much smaller.
• The cytoskeleton holds the cell together & keeps it
from collapsing
RIBOSOMES
• Cellular structures that make protein
• These are the Protein Factories!
DNA
• Deoxyribonucleic acid
• Provides the instructions for making protein that will
be read by the ribosomes.
• These instructions regulate cell activity and provide
a raw building material for making what the cell
needs.
• It also enables the cell to reproduce by storing
hereditary information.
TWO TYPES OF CELLS
• 1 Prokaryotes
• 2 Eukaryotes
PROKARYOTES
• Simplest & smallest cells
• Lack a nucleus & other internal compartments
known as “organelles.”
• Cannot carry out specialized functions
• Genetic material is a single circular strand of DNA
• Modern prokaryotes are called BACTERIA
BACTERIA
•
•
•
•
•
•
Modern prokaryotes
Exist in a broad range of conditions
Grow & divide rapidly
Some can make their own food
Some can live without oxygen
Enzymes & ribosomes are free to move around in
the cytoplasm because there are no internal
structures (organelles) to divide the cell into
compartments = their “parts” float around in there!
• DNA is circular (ring), suspended in the cytoplasm
CELL WALL
• Surrounds the cell membrane to provide
protection, structure, & support.
• Think of the cell membrane as the SKIN,
The cell wall as the SUIT OF ARMOR.
• Cell walls are found in bacteria, fungi, & plants.
CAPSULE
• Strands of polysaccharides that may surround the
cell wall of a bacteria
• These enable the bacteria to cling to almost anything
• The capsule is like a Velcro suit!
FLAGELLA
• Single (only 1) = called a flagellum
• More than one = called flagella
• Long, threadlike structures that protrude from the
cell’s surface
• Long, whip-like “tails” that allow some cells to
swim or move
EUKARYOTES
• First cells with internal compartments
• Have a nucleus
• Have other “organelles”
NUCLEUS
• Control center of the cell, like the “brain”
• Internal compartment (organelle) that
houses the cell’s DNA
• It has all the info. (DNA), so it is the
boss (control center)!
ORGANELLE
• Any structure that carries out a specific activity
inside of a cell
• It comes from the French language meaning
“little organs.” (-elle = little)
CILIA
• Small hair-like structures, found on some
eukaryotes, that protrude from the cell membrane.
• Used to make oar-like movements
• May be used to help a cell swim through a fluid
• May also be used to move substances across a cell’s
surface…
• EX- Cilia in the wind pipes sweep debris & mucus
out of the lungs
CYTOPLASM vs. PROTOPLASM
• Cytoplasm = everything inside the cell membrane,
BUT OUTSIDE the nucleus
• Protoplasm = Everything inside the cell membrane,
including the nucleus
• Protoplasm is ALL’DAT, cytoplasm is not.
• EX- Cytoplasm + Nucleus = Protoplasm
CYTOSKELETON FIBERS
• The eukaryotic cell is supported by the cytoskeleton
• There are 2 types of protein fibers that form the
cytoskeleton:
• 1 Microtubules—hollow, flexible
• 2 Microfilaments—solid, rigid
MICROTUBULES
• 1 of the 2 types of protein fibers in the cytoskeleton
• Microtubules are long tubes (tubules)
• Long, hollow tubes that extend throughout the
cytoplasm
• These, being hollow, are easy to bend and allow the
cell to flex and it may also help move organelles
around inside the cell
MICROFILAMENTS
• 1 of the 2 types of protein fibers in the cytoskeleton
• These are thin protein strands that help support the
cell’s shape & structure
• They are solid, unlike microtubules.
• These give strength and rigidity to the cytoskeleton
• Microfilaments hold things in place, restricting
movement
CELL STRUCTURE REVIEW
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Cell membrane = Skin
Cell wall = Suit of Armor
Capsule = Velcro Suit
Nucleus = “Brain”
Flagella = long swimming tail, whip-like
Cilia = short swimming hairs, oar-like
Cytoskeleton = 2 protein fibers
1 microtubules (hollow), 2 microfilament (solid)
CELL MEMBRANES
• Cell membranes are fluid like a soap bubble.
• The fluidity of the cell membrane is caused by lipids
• These lipids form a barrier that separates the inside
of a cell from the outer environment
• The cell membrane is selectively permeable =
• It allows only certain substances to enter and exit
the cell
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
• Interacts with water to cause a cell membrane to
become selectively permeable
• Made of a phosphate group (PO4) with 2 fatty acids
• Has a “polar head” and 2 “nonpolar tails”
• The head contains the phosphate group & is
attracted to water (hydrophilic = loves water)
• The tails contain the nonpolar fatty acids &
repels water (hydrophobic = fears water)
LIPID BILAYER
• Phospholipids arranged in double layers (2 ply)
• This arrangement is found in the cell membrane
• Nonpolar tails of the phospholipids make up the
interior of the bilayer; they are forced to remain here
because water inside & outside the cell repels them.
• Ions & polar molecules, including proteins & sugars,
are repelled by the nonpolar interior of the bilayer,
forcing them to remain outside the cell.
• It takes an “active door” to let them inside the cell.
PROTEINS EMBEDDED IN THE
LIPID BILAYER
• Proteins are chains of amino acids, some of which
are polar, others nonpolar.
• The nonpolar parts (center) of a protein is attracted
to the interior of the lipid bilayer, but is repelled by
the water inside & outside the cell.
• The polar parts (ends) of the protein are attracted to
the water on both sides of the lipid bilayer.
• These attractions hold the protein in the proper
position inside the lipid bilayer (cell membrane).
TYPES OF CELL MEMBRANE
PROTEINS
• 1 Cell-surface marker proteins attached to a CHO
help define cell type (like a name tag…liver,
heart, blood, etc.…)
• 2 Receptor proteins recognize & join with specific
substances.
• 3 Enzymes embedded in the cell membrane are
involved in biochemical reactions inside the cell.
• 4 Transport proteins aid in the movement of
substances into & out of the cell.
TYPES OF CELL MEMBRANE
PROTEINS REVIEW
•
•
•
•
1 Cell-surface marker proteins = name tags
2 Receptor proteins = antennae for hormones/signals
3 Enzymes = speed up biochemical reactions
4 Transport proteins = doorways
• REMEMBER…
• The cell membrane is fluid due to the lipids, allowing the
proteins to move or float round…
Imagine a wall with a floating door! They actually exist!
REVIEW
• The cell theory has 3 parts.
• Small cells function more efficiently than large ones
because small cells have a higher surface-area-tovolume ratio than larger cells.
• All cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, & DNA .
• Prokaryotic cells = NO nucleus, NO organelles
• Eukaryotic cells = HAVE nucleus, organelles, cytoskeleton
• The lipid bilayer of a cell membrane is made of a double
layer of phospholipid molecules.
• Proteins in cell membranes include enzymes, receptor
proteins, transport proteins, & cell-surface marker proteins
• Sec 3-2 Q1-5 pg 60
ORGANELLES (pgs 55-66)
• “Little organs” inside a cell,
much like our own organs.
• These are the separate compartments inside a cell
that perform specialized functions.
• Organelles are suspended in CYTOSOL (fluid)
• Organelles + Cytosol = Cytoplasm (solids + fluid)
• Organelles are ONLY found in eukaryotes.
• (NOT in prokaryotes = bacteria)
EXAMPLES OF ORGANELLES
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1 Nucleus
2 Nucleolus
3 Ribosomes
4 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) = rER + sER
5 Golgi apparatus
6 Cell membrane (& cell wall if present)
7 Mitochondria
8 Lysosomes
9 Peroxisomes
10 Centrioles
NUCLEUS
• Control center of a cell, “brain”
• Surrounded by a double membrane called the
“nuclear envelope or nuclear membrane.”
• Ribosomal proteins & RNA are made here
• Ribosomes are partially formed in a central area of
the nucleus called the NUCLEOLUS.
NUCLEAR DNA
• Most of the cell’s DNA is stored in the nucleus.
• Nuclear DNA stores genetic information.
• It also contains the instructions for the proper
amino acid sequence of each protein.
• Proteins regulate chemical reactions & many other
cellular functions
• THUS—
• The nucleus is the control center because it regulates
cell structure & function by controlling protein
production.
DNA & CHROMOSOMES
• Most of the cell’s DNA is stored in the nucleus
• DNA exists most of the time in the form of
elongated strands or strings.
• When a cell is about to divide, DNA strands wind
into a compact rod shaped form called
Chromosomes.
• These are not visible unless cell ready to divide.
• DNA is the “yarn,” Chromosomes are the “skeen,”
Genes are the “designs/ stripes in the skeen.”
NUCLEOLUS
• Very center of the nucleus
• Completely enclosed by the nucleus
• Houses RNA
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
• Sometimes called the “nuclear membrane”
• It completely encloses the nucleus, “skin”
• Made of 2 lipid bilayers that separate the nucleus
from the cytoplasm
• Small channels called nuclear pores cover its surface
• These pores allow RNA to move out of the nucleus
into the cytoplasm of the cell.
RIBOSOMES
• They make protein! HOW?
• 1 The genetic code of DNA is translated into
mesenger RNA (mRNA) in the nucleus.
• 2 mRNA leaves the nucleus through nuclear pores
in the nuclear envelope, heads to the ribosomes.
• 3 Ribosomes chemically read the translated code on
the mRNA strands & link amino acids together in
the correct sequence to make a protein. The mRNA
holds a translation of DNA’s instructions on which
order to place the amino acids in to make a specific
protein.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
•
•
•
•
Endo- = inside, -plasmic = cytoplasm
Reticulum = network or system
ER = a network inside the cytoplasm of a cell
The ER is a system of internal membranes that move
proteins & other substances throughout the cell.
• The membranes are made up of a lipid bilayer with
embedded proteins.
• Its usually directly attached to the inside of the
cell membrane.
• ER is divided into the rough ER & the smooth ER.
ROUGH ER (rER)
• This is the part of the ER that houses ribosomes.
• RECALL…Ribosomes make protein
• The rER helps transport the proteins made by the
attached ribosomes, like a railroad next to a factory.
• As a protein is made, it passes through the ER
membrane into the hollow of the ER tube.
• The completed protein becomes surrounded as a
piece of the ER wall is pinched off to form a Vesicle
(fatty sac) around the new protein like a package.
VESICLES
• Vesicles are a small membrane sac that transports
substances in a cell.
• They are usually made from the pinched off walls of
an organelle or a lipid bilayer.
• EX-Vesicles can be made from the walls of the ER,
Golgi apparatus, & cell membrane.
SMOOTH ER (sER)
• Part of the ER that lacks ribosomes
(that is why its smooth!).
• Its downstream from the rough ER (rER).
• It simply exists as a tube through which vesicles
(containing proteins and other substances) travel.
• The sER makes phospholipids to maintain & patch
the cell membrane.
• It also detoxifies toxins like alcohol—liver cells
contain many lengths of sER.
GOLGI APPARATUS
• Named after ________ Golgi
• Set of flattened, membrane-bound sacs that serve to
package & distribute proteins.
• Enzymes in the Golgi apparatus modify the proteins.
• Modified proteins are repackaged into new vesicles
that form from the pinched-off lipid surface of
the Golgi apparatus.
CELL MEMBRANE
• Acts as a skin to protect & hold the cell together.
• However, vesicles can flow through the cell
membrane easily as to export its contents outside
the cell.
• When vesicles empty their contents outside the cell,
the process is called EXOCYTOSIS, meaning to
exit the cell.
THE MIGHTY MITOCHONDRIA
• Mitochondrion if singular, (2+ = Mitochondria)
• This is the organelle that harvests energy from
organic compounds to make ATP, the main
energy currency of cells
• This is the “Powerhouse of the Cell.”
• Cells with a high energy requirement, like muscle
cells, may contain thousands of mitochondria.
MITOCHONDRIAL STRUCTURE
• It has both an inner & an outer membrane
• The outer is smooth, the inner is folded to increase
the surface area for chemical reactions.
• Chemical reactions occur in both membranes to
produce ATP, but mostly on the folded inner
membrane because there is more room.
• Mito pic! needed
MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTION
• These are the sites of energy production.
• C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2
+ 6H2O +
E
glucose + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water + energy
• This chemical equation makes life on Earth possible.
• Cellular respiration is photosynthesis in reverse!
WHAT HAPPENS TO THE ENERGY?
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the energy saver
of the cell.
• ATP works like a battery to temporarily store energy
• High energy bonds exist between the last 2 PO4 s…
A-PO4-PO4
PO4
• EACH molecule of glucose charges 38 ATPs !!!
ATP
• Adenosine triphosphate, a nucleotide
• It is the main energy currency of cells.
• Some ATP is produced in the cytoplasm,
but the majority is produced by mitochondria.
• The ATPs circulates throughout the body dispersing
energy needed for skeletal muscles & the heart, as
well as the energy needed to start chemical reactions
for life, memories, & dreams, to name a few uses.
• Anywhere energy is needed, ATP supplies.
MITOCHONDRIAL DNA
• Mitochondria also have their own DNA, ribosomes,
& produce some of their own proteins!
• Mitochondrial DNA is independent of nuclear DNA
& is similar to the circular DNA of bacteria.
• The widely accepted Endosymbiotic Theory, states
that prokaryotes may be the ancestors of animal
mitochondria, that at 1 time they were free living
organisms that formed a mutual relationship with
another cell!
ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY?
LYSOSOMES
• Small vesicles (also considered organelles) that
contain a cell’s digestive enzymes.
• This is one type of vesicle that contains a protein
(enzyme) formed by the Golgi apparatus that
stays inside the cell for its function; it does not
leave the cell by the process or exocytosis.
• The PEROXISOME is another example of a vesicle
that remains inside the cell.
LYSOSOME FUNCTIONS
• They often migrate to mitochondria to digest
glucose to release energy used to charge ATP.
• Others are used to eat bacteria, germs, invaders.
• Also used to recycle wornout/defective
organelles & cells.
• Lots of them are inside WBCs (white blood cells)
for immunity (eating germs).
PEROXISOMES
• Enzyme-filled vesicles that digest fats.
• RECALL...fats = long chains of nonpolar fatty acids
• Peroxisomes are also made by the Golgi apparatus
& stay inside the cell, like lysosomes.
• They are involved in removing poisons.
• The human body’s natural filters contain many
peroxisomes—in the liver & kidney cells.
CENTRIOLES
• A group of microtubules that aid in moving
chromosomes around during cell reproduction.
• These make sure that each cell gets the correct
number and copy of each chromosome set.
• Organelles rvw?
• Proteins syn/ distrubution
• Plant cell features
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
• 1 DNA in the nucleus is the instructions for making
proteins. It tells what order in which to place
amino acids.
• 2 DNA is translated into mRNA that leaves the
nucleus through nuclear pores in the nuclear
envelope.
• 3 mRNA is read by ribosomes on the rER. The
ribosomes gather amino acids together from the
surrounding cytosol & bind them in the correct
order to form a specific protein.
• 4 A new protein is made!
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
• 5 That new protein is engulfed as part of the ER
wall pinches off to form a vesicle around the
protein.
• 6 The vesicle serves as packaging as the protein is
transported from the rER, through the sER,
to the Golgi apparatus.
• 7 The Golgi apparatus processes (modifies) & puts
the finishing touches on the customized protein.
It then repackages the finished protein in a
vesicle formed from part of the Golgi’s lipid
wall.
PROTEIN DESTINATION
• From here, the 2nd vesicle can either remain in the
cell or be exported out through the cell
membrane.
• If it is exported (EX- hormones, enzymes), the
lipid vesicle just floats through the phospholipid
cell membrane in the process of exocytosis.
• Other vesicles may remain inside the cell &
function as lysosomes or peroxisomes.
QUICK PROTEIN PATHWAY
•
•
•
•
•
1
2
3
4
5
DNA translated into mRNA
mRNA leaves nucleus, goes to rER
Ribosomes of the rER read mRNA, makes protein
ER vesicle forms, leaves rER, sER, goes to Golgi
Golgi modifies & repackages finished protein into
2nd vesicle
• 6 Vesicle either stays in cell or exocytosis occurs
QUICKIE!
•
•
•
•
•
•
1
2
3
4
5
6
DNA mRNA
mRNA leaves nuke  rER
rER r’somes read mRNA, make protein from AA
ER vesicle  thru ER to Golgi
Golgi modifies protein  put in 2nd vesicle
Either stays or leaves cell (exocytosis)
IMPORTANCE OF PROTEIN
SYNTHESIS
• All cells make protein.
• It is the basis of life; its the result of having DNA
(or RNA in some cases).
• All human cells have these organelles & so do
plants cells, but they have a few extra…
PLANT CELL FEATURES
• Plants have 3 major structures animal cells do not.
• 1 Cell Wall
• 2 Chloroplasts
• 3 Central Vacuole
CELL WALL
• It surrounds the cell membrane of a plant cell to
provide support & protection.
• It does not prevent the movement of substances
across the cell membrane.
• It is made of a mixture of proteins & CHOs.
• Also connects the cell with adjacent cells.
• Cell membrane = “skin”, Cell wall = “armor”
CHLOROPLASTS
• This organelle uses light to make CHOs from
carbon dioxide & water (photosynthesis).
• Working along with mitochondria, they supply the
plant with most of its energy needs.
• Chloro. = make sugar, Mito. = burn sugar
• Are surrounded by 2 membranes & have own DNA
• Like mitochondria, they are believed to be the
descendents of free prokaryotes
(Endosymbiotic Theory again) .
CENTRAL VACUOLE
•
•
•
•
Takes up most of the plant cell’s volume
MUCH larger than any other vacuole in the cell
Stores water & may contain ions, nutrients, & waste
When the vacuole is full, it presses the cytoplasm
against the cell wall making the cell rigid; this
allows the plant to stand upright (overfull balloon)
• This water pressure is called TURGOR PRESSURE.
• It allows plants to withstand high winds and make
simple movements (heliotropism, opening blossoms)
• Turgor makes the HYDROSTATIC SKELETON
HUMAN ORGANELLES TO KNOW
• Nucleus- cell’s control center, “brain”
• Mitochondria- powerhouse, get energy from glucose
• Ribosomes- makes protein, Vesicle- packaging
• ER- system of tubes for communication (subway)
----rER- houses ribosomes
----sER- makes phospholipids for the cell membrane
• Golgi apparatus- modifies, packages, directs protein
• Lysosome- digest most stuff
• Peroisomes- digests fats
• Cell membrane- “skin”
EUKARYOTIC CELL REVIEW
• The eukaryotic nucleus directs the cell’s activities &
stores DNA.
• An internal membrane system (ER) produces,
packages, & distributes proteins.
• Mitochondria harvest energy from organic
compounds to charge ATP.
• Lysosomes digest & recycle a cell’s used,worn parts
• Plant cells have 3 organelles animal cells lack:
Cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole
• Sec 3-3 Q1-5 pg 66
ATOMS TO CELLS
• The human body has more than 10 trillion cells
• That’s 10,000,000,000,000 + !!!
• There are more than 100 different types of cells with
specialized functions (bone, nerve, muscle…)
• They all have organelles,cytosol, & a cell membrane
HOW CELLS GROW &
REPRODUCE
• In 3 steps
• 1 Interphase  2 Mitosis  3 Cytokinesis
• Interphase- the doubling of DNA & chromosomes
DNA
• Stands for deoxyribonucleic acid
• It is just a fancy molecule, a combo of nucleotides,
bases, phosphates & sugars.
• DNA comes in the form of CHROMOSOMES
• Chromosomes- strings of DNA wound around a
central protein
• Humans have 46 chromosomes
• 23 from mom + 23 from dad = 46 in you!
• The process is called FERTILIZATION.
CHROMOSOMES TAKE ON 2
SHAPES
• Chromosomes can be present in a single or in a
double strand
• Single- called a single CHROMATID [12 pack]
• Double- single chromatid copied & joined to itself
(Like being joined to your clone) [24
pack]
• Interphase = when chromosomes go from single to
double strands
MITOTIC CELL DIVISION
• Mitosis = division of a cell into 2 identical
daughter cells
• Four stages = PMAT
• Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
I PMAT
• Although interphase is NOT part of mitosis, cell
division occurs in these steps…
• IPMAT:
• I = Interphase
• P = Prophase
• M = Metaphase
• A = Anaphase
• T = Telophase
INTERPHASE
• We’ve seen is when the chromosomes get copied
• Opposite of Anaphase (12)
PROPHASE
• Nuclear envelope breaks down
• Chromosomes contract into the often recognized,
tightly wound, double stranded,
“butterfly” shape
• This is that double stranded chromosome
METAPHASE
• Chromosomes migrate to the cell’s equator
(midline)
ANAPHASE
• Chromatids (strands) of each chromosome separate
& go to opposite sides of the cell
• This is the opposite of interphase (21)
TELOPHASE
• Nuclear envelope reforms at each end
TELOPHASE & CYTOKINESIS
• CYTOKINESIS = movement of cytoplasm
• Then the cell membrane pinches in half forming
two separate cells
DAUGHTER CELLS
•
•
•
•
•
These 2 new cells are called DAUGHTER CELLS
They are both smaller than the parent (mother) cell
The larger parent cell has split in two.
Daughter cells are genetically identical
------Basically mitosis = cloning
• Yes, when a fertilized egg undergoes a rare mitotic
division, we get identical twins.
MITOSIS REVIEW
• Cells- made of cell membrane, cytosol, & organelles
• Cell growth & division is:
Interphase mitosis (PMAT)  cytokinesis
MITOSIS REVIEW+broken telophase
•
•
•
•
We are made of cells, about 10 trillion of them
Typical cell life spans: hours to days to weeks
We need our cells to be biologically PERFECT
PERFECT = correct with a complete set of
genetic instructions
• Mitosis prevents the “broken telophase” effect in
copying genetic instruction
• “Broken telophase” effect- results in a bad copy job
• Mitosis has built in securities to prevent info. loss
MITOSIS REVIEW
• IPMAT, cytokinesis:
• Interphase- c’somes copy themselves(12stranded)
• Prophase- nuclear envelope disappears,
chromosomes condense
• Metaphase- c’somes line up along cell’s equator
• Anaphase- chromatids (strands) pull apart (21)
• Telophase- cytokinesis occurs, nuclear envelope
reappears, 2 new cells
MITOSIS REVIEW
•
•
•
•
•
•
Or …
I- c’somes get copied
P- c’somes condense
M- c’somes Migrate to Equator (Metaphase)
A- c’comes pull Apart (Anaphase)
T- Two new cells (T for 2, 2 for T, T for Telophase)
HEIRARCHY OF ORGANIZATION
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Atoms
Molecules
Organelles
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Organ Systems
Your Body
Entire Human Population
TISSUES
• Tissues are a group of cells that work together for a
common function
• HISTOLOGY – the study of tissues
• Humans are made of 4 tissue types:
• 1 Epithelial
• 2 Connective
• 3 Muscular
• 4 Nervous
st
EPITHELIAL…1
type
• The lining tissue
• Characteristics of epithelium:
• 1 Lots of cell to cell contact so they stick together
 they can form large sheets
• 2 Polarized: have a distinct Apical (top) &
Basal (bottom) surfaces to them.
• 3 Have a BASAL LAMINA secreted by the
epithelium that anchors the cell in place
TWO TYPES OF EPITHELIUM
• 1 Covering/Lining Epithelium
• 2 Glandular Epithelium
COVERING/LINING EPITHELIUM
• Covers the surface of the body & internal organs
• Forms lining inside blood vessels, digestive tract,
respiratory, urinary & reproductive systems
GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
• Found in cells/glands of the endocrine system
--makes hormones
• And in cells/glands of the exocrine system
--secretes hormones
• Hormones- chemical messengers of the body
COVERING/LINING EPITHELIUM
• Composed of cell layers, many different cell shapes
• Shapes:
(simple-as is, stratified- striped in layers)
• 1 Squamous
• 2 Cuboidal
• 3 Columnar
• 4 Transitional
SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
• Squashed, flat in appearance
• Simple squamous: air sacs in the lungs, capillaries
• Stratified squamous: lining of the mouth, throat, &
vagina
CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
• Cube shaped
• Simple cuboidal: ovaries, blood vessels
COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
•
•
•
•
•
Column-shaped, tall & rectangular
Simple columnar: lining of the digestive tract
Pseudostratified (falsely layered) columnar:
Appears layered but truly in not
In upper respiratory tract (from the voice box & up)
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
• Changes shape when the tissue stretches,
like Spandex.
• Simple transitional: lining of bladder, uterus, urethra
GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
• Exocrine Glands
• Products empty directly onto body surfaces or into
a body cavity
• EX-sweat, oil, salivary glands
• Endocrine Glands
• Products secrete directly from the cell (hormones) &
must go into the blood stream
• EX- Pituitary, thyroid, sexual glands (gonads)
CONNECTIVE
nd
TISSUE…2
type
• Functions to support & hold the body together
• Commonly known as bone, cartilage, tendon,
ligament, sinew, & blood
CONNECTIVE TISUUE
CHARACTERISTICS
• 1 Cells are in a matrix (network) of protein fibers
and “ground substance”
• EX- not much cell-cell contact, cells NOT polarized
• 2 Ground substance = liquid, solid, or gel
• 3 Fibroblasts & fibrocytes that produce the
matrix fibers
QUICK TERMS
• Fibro- = filament, little thread
• -cyte = cell
• -blast = immature, young; usually associated with
making things
3 TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• 1 Connective Tissue Proper
• 2 Fluid Connective Tissue
• 3 Supporting Connective Tissue
CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
• Connects cells & tissues together
• 2 Types of CTP
• 1. Loose Connective Tissue Proper
• 2. Dense Connective Tissue Proper
LOOSE CTP
• Consists of many cells in a matrix of a few loosely
woven fibers
• EX- Adipose Tissue- fat tissue (adipose, lipid = fat)
anchors skin to underlying tissues, supports the liver
• Areolar tissue—CT surrounding nipples (both sexes)
. [darker ring around the nipple is called the areola]
DENSE CTP
• Consists of fewer cells in a matrix of dense, tightly
woven fibers
•
•
•
•
EXDermis------------skin in general
Ligaments--------holds bone to bone
Tendons----------holds bone to MUSCLE
LIGAMENTS & TENDONS
• What is the difference?
• Think ABC order!
• .
• .
Ligament…Bone to bone
Tendon…...Muscle to bone
MOST COMMON CTs
• Patellar Ligament…from Kneecap to TIBIA*
*(big shin bone)
• Achilles Tendon…calf muscle to CALCANEUS**
**(heel bone)
• Who was Achilles?
ACL
•
•
•
•
•
ACL = Anterior Cruciate Ligament
ACL may be the best known ligament [Bone –Bone]
ACL damage is a frequent sports injury to the knee
This is why leg sweeps are illegal in football.
ACL holds Femur (thigh bone) to Tibia in the knee
PATELLAR CTs
• Patella = kneecap
• Patellar Tendon (Rectus femoris muscle to kneecap)
is ABOVE the knee.
• Patellar Ligament (kneecap to tibia)
is BELOW the knee.
FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Two Types
• 1 Blood
• 2 Lymph
BLOOD
•
•
•
•
•
Made in the center of bones by Red Bone Marrow
This process is called HEMATOPOIESIS
Hemo(e)- or Hemato- = blood, -poiesis = forming
Hematology is the study of blood & its diseases.
Hemoglobin is blood pigment.
• Blood has 2 parts
• 1 Plasma………….....liquid……55% of blood
• 2 Formed elements….solid…….45% of blood
PLASMA
• Blood’s liquid matrix
• It is 92% water, 8% floating proteins
FORMED ELEMENTS
• These are solids…cells
• RBCs---Red Blood Cells
* Called ERYTHROCYTES (erythro- = red)
* Involved in gas exchange, swaps O2 & CO2
• WBCs.---White Blood Cells
* Called LEUKOCYTES [leuk(c)o- = white]
* Fight germs, infection, part of immunity
• Platelets (thrombocytes)…(thrombo- = clot, lump)
* Helps in blood clot formation (scabs)
LYMPH
• Basically it is dirty blood plasma that gets cleaned
through filters called LYMPH NODES.
• Germs & debris from the blood plasma get collected
in the lymph nodes.
• Trapped germs are eaten by the many WBCs that
ambush them in the lymph nodes .
• When lymph nodes are clogged, infections occur.
• EX- tonsilitis
MAJOR LYMPH NODES
•
•
•
•
•
•
Tonsils---in the throat
Axillary---in the arm pits
Cervical—in the lower neck
Inguinal—in the crotch/thigh area
Mammary—in the breasts of BOTH sexes
Lumbar—in the lower back
MONONUCLEOSIS
• Called Mono or the Kissing Disease
• Sometimes germs reproduce so fast, that
they overfill the nodes.
• The more germs there are in the body, the more are
likely to get caught.
• Sometimes they overrun these filters & nodes swell.
• This explains the knots in the neck & armpits.
• In extreme cases, Mono causes back pain. WHY?
SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
• Supports the weight of the body & body structures
• Two Types
• 1 Cartilage
• 2 Bone
CARTILAGE
•
•
•
•
•
•
Chondro- = cartilage
Ground substance is strong, but a bit gelatinous (gel)
Lacks a direct blood supply (no blood vessels at all)
Because of this, it heels slowly
Has open spaces like a sponge
So blood puddles & diffuses thru’ the spongy tissue
CARTILAGE CELLS
• Two Types of Cartilage Cells
• 1 Chondroblasts
• 2 Chondrocytes
CHONDROBLASTS
• The younger, immature cartilage cell
• These actually do the building of cartilage from the
surrounding ground substance.
CHONDROCYTES
•
•
•
•
The fully grown, mature chondroblasts
The name changes as they age.
These are the living tissue of cartilage
This means these cells metabolize, grow, repair, &
maintain the cartilage tissue.
• Chondroblasts build it, chondrocytes maintain it.
TYPES OF CARTILAGE
•
•
•
•
Three Types
1 Hyaline
2 Elastic
3 Fibrocartilage (collagenous)
HYALINE
• Firm cartilage at the tips of long bones, in ribs, nose,
& the trachea (windpipe)
• Almost too hard to pierce comfortably
• Rib rings? Its possible…
ELASTIC
•
•
•
•
More flexible due to elastin fibers in the matrix
Elastin is stretchy, just like synthetic elastic.
Found in the pinna = outer ear
This we can pierce somewhat comfortably.
FIBROCARTILAGE
•
•
•
•
Few cells in a matrix of collagen fibers
A collagen matrix is usually gelatinous
Liquid collagen is used in plastic surgery
EX- in cheeks, breasts, lips
FIBROCARTILAGE
• Collagen is shock absorbing
• Collagenous fibrocartilage forms disc-like pads
called menisci (meniscus if singular) to absorb
shock & stress in many joints.
• EX- *TMJ in the jaw
• .
* Inside the knee
• .
* The pubic symphysis
• .
* Between most vertebrae in the spinal column
BONE
• Osteo- = bone, Osteology = study of bone
• Has a direct blood supply, many blood
vessels & nerves
• Heals quite quickly
• Provides rigid structural support for protection &
movement
• It is the 2nd hardest substance in the body
• What is the #1 hardest substance in the body?
• WHY?
BONE CHARACTERISTICS
• Bone cells are similar to cartilage cells
• Two types
• 1 Osteoblasts
• 2 Osteocytes
OSTEOBLASTS
• Young, immature bone making cells
• Actually deposit Ca & P salts to make bone
OSTEOCYTES
• Mature, grown up osteoblasts
• Osteocytes are the living tissue,
maintaning the bone tissue.
• Osteoblasts build bone, osteocytes maintain it.
FUNCTIONS OF BONE
•
•
•
•
•
•
Five Functions
1 Support
2 Protection
3 Attachment
4 Hematopoiesis
5 Storage
SUPPORT
• Bones are the framework to which
everything else is attached.
PROTECTION
•
•
•
•
Bones protect many vital organs & structures
Skull—protects the brain & pituitary gland
Rib cage—protects the heart, lungs, liver & spleen
Pelvis—protects/supports bladder, intestines, uterus,
ovaries, & kidneys
ATTACHMENT
• Bones have special spikes, ridges, crests, dips,
depressions, projections, & holes specially
present for muscle attachment.
• The depressions are a perfect match for the bulges
or belly of skeletal muscles that attach
there.
• The deeper the dip, the stronger & larger the muscle
• EX- Compare cat leg bones to dinosaur leg bones
HEMATOPOIESIS
• Bone generates RBCs in red bone marrow
• See the slide titled “BLOOD”
STORAGE
• Bone stores fat in yellow bone marrow
• Bone stores many minerals in the form of salts
• Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) &
calcium phosphate (CaPO4) are the most
abundant.
• PS……CaCO3 is limestone!
BONE TYPES
• Two Types
• 1 Spongy bone
• 2 Compact bone
SPONGY BONE
• Less dense
• Found at the tips of long bones
• Site of hematopoiesis
COMPACT BONE
• Very dense, very hard
• Forms the outer collar or shell around most
individual bones , spongy bone on the inside
• Site of some fat storage
• Also a site of hematopoiesis
BONE SHAPES
• Five Shapes
•
•
•
•
•
1
2
3
4
5
Long
Short
Flat
Irregular
Round (sesamoid)
LONG BONES
• Longer than they are wide
• EX- arm & leg bones
SHORT BONES
• Wider than they are long
• EX- wrist, ankle, & heel bones
FLAT BONES
• Very thin, usually curved
• EX- shoulder blades and cranial skull bones
IRREGULAR BONES
• Oddly shaped bones with many dips and projections
• EX- all vertebrae & the sphenoid bone
ROUND OR SESAMOID BONES
• Called sesamoid from the Greek term for “
sesame seed shaped”
• There are only 2 normally in the human body…
• The kneecaps (patellas)
• Sometimes extra bones form in sutures between the
skull’s cranial bones that form sesamoids, but
rarely ever larger than a pencil eraser around.
• Natural and harmless
TISSUE SUMMARY 1
• Atoms-molecules-organelles-cells-tissues
• Tissues- many cells working together for 1 function
• 4 tissue types- epithelial,connective, muscle,nervous
•
•
•
•
•
EPITHELIALChar:cell-cell contact, polarized, have basal lamina
Types: covering/lining & glandular
Layers: simple, stratified, pseudostratified
Shape: squamous, cuboidal, columnar, transitional
TISSUE SUMMARY 2
• CONNECTIVE• Char: matrix of protein + ground substance,
fibroblasts & fibrocytes
• Types: CT Proper (loose/dense)
Fluid CT (blood/lymph)
Supporting CT (cartilage/bone)
TISSUE SUMMARY 3
• CARTILAGE• Char: gelatinous, rigid matrix;
has chondroblasts,chondrocytes…No blood vessels
• Types: *Hyaline (collagen matrix) in the ribs, nose,
trachea, joints
*Elastic (elastin matrix) in the ear
*Fibrocartilage (collagen matrix) between
vertebrae
TISSUE SUMMARY 4
• BONE• Char: hard, has blood vessels/nerves,
osteoblasts,osteocytes
• Func: support, protection, attachment
hematopoiesis (make RBCs), storage (Ca,P)
• Types: spongy & compact
• Shapes: long, short, flat, irregular, round (sesamoid)
MUSCULAR
rd
TISSUE…3
type
• Myo- = muscle, Myology = study of muscle
• Characteristics:
• Composed of muscle fibers that contract
when stimulated.
3 TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE
• 1 Striated
• 2 Cardiac
• 3 Smooth
STRIATED MUSCLE
•
•
•
•
•
Also called skeletal or striped muscle
It is voluntary muscle attached to the skeleton
Moves the limbs for locomotion, maintains posture
Has cylinder shaped cells with striated patterns
Patterns are made up of the protein filaments
ACTIN & MYOSIN
• Fibers often run in the same direction, giving them a
striped appearance, like wood grain.
• Each cell has several nuclei &multiple mitochondria
SMOOTH MUSCLE
• Found inside the walls of blood vessels, airways,
stomach, intestines, bladder, & uterus
• Cells are spindle shaped
• Single nucleus per cell
• No visible striations here (that is why its smooth)
CARDIAC MUSCLE
• Found only in the heart
• Its Involuntary muscle
• Cells are shaped like branching cylinders
(tree trunks)
• Has slight striations
• Only 1 nucleus per cell
CARDIAC MUSCLE
• The cells are next to each other are joined at
thickened regions of their cell membranes
• These joints are called INTERCALATED DISCS
• They allow for rapid conduction of impulses
• It’s good to send nerve impulses quickly across the
heart so that it contracts (beats) regularly & on time!
INTERCALATED DISCS
• picture
RECALL THE 4 TISSUE TYPES
•
•
•
•
1
2
3
4
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous: brain, spinal cord, body nerves
NERVOUS
th
TISSUE…4
type
• Neuro- = nerves, Neurology = study of nerves
• Characteristics:
• Composed of 2 types of cells
• A) Neuron- basic nerve cells, actually conduct
IMPULSES (chemo-electric messages)
• B) Neuroglia- cells that support/ help the neurons
NERVOUS TISSUE FUNCTIONS
• 1 Turn external information (input) into pulses
• EX- the 5 senses (light, sound, taste, smell, heat…)
• 2 Carry chemo-electric messages (impulses)
between parts of the body
NEURONS
• Shapes vary, usually long & branched
NEURON STRUCTURES
• DENDRITE= input end of the neuron,
it’s branched, treelike
• Carries impulses TOWARDS the cell body
• CELL BODY= main part of the neuron
cell containing the nucleus & organelles
• AXON= output end of a neuron, a long extension
of the cell body
• Conducts impulses AWAY from the cell body
NEURON DIAGRAM
REMEMBER THIS…
• Dendrite = Input (towards the cell body)
• Axons = Output (away from the cell body
• The I in dendrIte stands for Input, axOn = Output
• Axons Away!! A stands for Away
NEUROGLIAL CELLS
• Have many functions
• Some help the transmission of impulses
• Others insulate, protect, support, hold a blood
supply to neurons
• Many types of neuroglia (we’ll see the details later)
TISSUES TO ORGANS
• ORGAN = a group of tissues working together for 1
common function
• They are usually composed of 2 or more tissues with
specific functions
ORGAN CHARACTERISTICS
• All organs have these 4 things in common:
•
•
•
•
1
2
3
4
Parenchymal cells
Stroma
Nerve Supply
Blood Supply
PARENCHYMAL CELLS
• General term used to describe cells related to an
organs major function
• EX- Enamel cells are the parenchyma of the teeth
• Acid-making cells are parenchyma of the stomach
• Can you think of another parenchyma of the
stomach?
STROMA
• Stroma is the connective tissue that binds the tissues
within an organ together & keeps organs
separated from other nearby tissues
• Stroma holds the acid-making cells of the stomach
to the smooth muscle of the stomach.
• Without stroma, the stomach would digest itself &
its acids would soon spread to the other organs in
the body, causing severe damage throughout.
BLOOD & NERVE SUPPLY
• All human organs require blood to bring in nutrients,
oxygen, & ATP. Blood also removes wastes,
carbon dioxide, & ADP (used, uncharged ATP).
• All human organs need a link to the nervous system
to communicate with the brain & spinal cord
& to respond accordingly.
ORGAN SYSTEMS
• An organ system is a group of organs working
together for 1 common function
• EX- Digestive system
• Teeth, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver,
intestines,etc.
• 1 function: to break down food & absorb nutrients
• The human body has 11 Organ Systems.
11 HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS
•
•
•
•
•
•
1
2
3
4
5
6
Integumentary
Skeletal
Muscular
Digestive
Circulatory
Respiratory
7 Urinary (Excretory)
8 Reproductive
9 Nervous
10 Endocrine
11 Immune*
* an honorary system
INTEGUMENTARY---skin
• Largest organ system, organ, and tissue group in the
human body
•
•
•
•
Parts:
Epidermis
Dermis
Their derivatives (hair, oil glands, nails,etc.)
INTEGUMENTAL FUNCTIONS
•
•
•
•
•
•
1
2
3
4
5
6
Protects the body from abrasions & cuts
Senses external environment (heat, cold, touch…)
Maintain body temperature
Immune functions (mostly blocks out dirt/germs)
Make vitamin D in the presence of sunlight
Excretion—sweat
SKELETAL
• Parts: Bones, Cartilage, Ligaments
•
•
•
•
•
•
Functions:
1 Muscle attachment for locomotion
2 Protect vital organs
3 Stores calcium, phosphorus, & fat
4 Makes RBCs
5 Supports body weight
MUSCULAR
• Parts: Striated, Smooth, Cardiac Muscles
• Functions:
• 1 Body movement
• 2 Internal transport of fluid (peristalsis)
EX- esophagus, large intestine
• 3 Makes heat
DIGESTIVE
• Parts: Teeth, Tongue, Salivary Glands, Esophagus,
Stomach, Small & Large Intestines, Liver,
Pancreas, and Gall Bladder
• Functions:
• 1 Physical & chemical breakdown of food
• 2 Uptake, store, & release nutrients
CIRCULATORY
• Parts: Heart, Blood, Lymph, Blood & Lymph
Vessels, Lymph Nodes, Spleen, Bone Marrow
and Tonsils
•
•
•
•
•
•
Functions:
1 Transport system for:
A metabolism (food, waste, gases, heat)
B immune system (antibodies, WBCs)
C endocrine hormones (chemicals that stay inside)
2 Regulate pH (acid-base balance)
RESPIRATORY
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Parts:
Nose
Larynx—voice box
Trachea—windpipe
Bronchi—branches into the lungs
Alveoli—air sacs in lungs (attached to capillaries)
Lungs
Functions: Gas exchange, pH balance
URINARY (EXCRETORY)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Parts:
Kidneys
Ureters—pipes between kidneys & bladders
Bladder—stores urine
Urethra—pipe where urine exits the body
Fuctions:
1 Balance of the internal environment
2 Blood thicknesspressurepulse rate
REPRODUCTIVE
• Parts: Female-Ovaries, Oviduct (Fallopian Tubes)
Uterus, Vagina
Male-Testes, Prostrate, Penis
•
•
•
•
Functions:
1 Make hormones
2 Make eggs & sperm (gametes)
3 Site of fetal development
NERVOUS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Parts:
Sensory organs (5 senses)
Brain + Spinal cord (CNS)
Somatic nerves (PNS)—[somatic = body]
Functions:
1 Regulate & integrate body functions via nerves
2 Conduct impulses
ENDOCRINE
• Parts:
• Cells, organs, & glands that make hormones
• Function:
• Regulate & integrate body functions via hormones
IMMUNITY
• Fighting off germs & disease
• The immune system is really an honorary system
• It borrows from many other body systems
TRADITIONAL IMMUNITY
• WBCs—makes antibodies & actually eat germs,
some spear them to death
• Antibodies—chemical agents designed to destroy
specific germs, It is chemical warfare designed
by WBCs
• Lymph—circulates/collects dirt, germs, & debris
from ALL tissues
• Lymph nodes- filters the stuff collected/floating in
fluid lymph
• Spleen- although WBCs are made in bone marrow,
they gather & mature in the spleen
COOPERATIVE IMMUNITY
• Other immune functions are expressed throughout
the body as physical or chemical barriers to
prevent the entrance of invading pathogens.
INTEGUMENTAL IMMUNITY
• Skin provides a physical barrier between us & germs
• ACID MANTLE
• Has pH of 4.4-5.5 to deter bacterial growth
• This is called the acid mantle, slightly acidic due to
the secretions of the sweat & oil glands
• Hairs also keeps germs out of parts of our body:
• EX- Eyelashes, eyebrows, nasal & pubic hair
SKELETAL IMMUNITY
• Hematopoiesis generates germ-eating &
antibody-making WBCs
MUSCULAR IMMUNITY
•
•
•
•
•
Maintains body temperature
Muscular contractions generate heat
EX- We shiver when it gets too cold outside.
These involuntary contractions warm up the body
Maintaining a relatively high body temperature
keeps the body too warm to allow most bacteria
to thrive inside the body.
NERVOUS IMMUNITY
• Some neuroglial cells specialize in fighting germs in
the spinal cord.
THE 5 SENSES
• These are classified as part of the nervous system
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2
3
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5
Touch
Taste
Smell
Hear
Sight
EYES
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Eyebrows,eyelashes-physical barriers to dirt & germs
Eyelids do the same
THE ASIAN EYEFOLD—
Flap of skin at the inner corner of the eye
Its an example of immune human adaptation as
Asian ancestors were nomadic people
geographically plagued by sandstorms
• Tear glands wash dirt/germs out of the eye
EARS
• The ear canal open to the outside world twists &
turns to prevent bugs from flying directly into
the middle ear,
• THE BUG TRAP• Actual speed bump in the ear canal to keep bugs &
foreign objects outside.
• Some ear canals are hairy to also prevent the entry
of objects
• CERUMIN (ear wax) traps dirt by being sticky
DIGESTIVE IMMUNITY
• Mucous from nose & throat traps germs (flypaper)
• This mucous is periodically dumped into the
stomach
• Germs trapped in the mucous are “burned alive” &
destroyed in the stomach acid
• Many Ohioans experience this excessively during
allergy season as Sinus Drainage
• This is natural, but excess is not.
RESPIRATORY IMMUNITY
• Mucous in the nose, mouth, throat, pharynx, trachea,
& bronchi collect germs by their sticky surfaces.
• Mucous also warms the air we inhale, helping to kill
off germ. This is why it is healthier to breathe
through the nose rather than the mouth.
• Nasal hair also filters the air inhaled into the body
• Cilia lining the air passages do the same.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
IMMUNITY
• Reproductive body openings (orifices) are well
protected.
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The Penal Orifice
Has mucous lining
Can completely close & seal shut
Prepuce cartilage forms a physical barrier in front of
the opening
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
IMMUNITY
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The Vaginal Orifice
Larger orifice lined by a double fleshy hood/lips
Labia majora & the labia minora form this barrier
Labia = lip, majora = greater, minora = lesser
Labia majora is the outer lip, l. minora is the inner
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
IMMUNITY
• Vagina is highly acidic to chemically destroy germs
• Acidic enough most times of the month to destroy
sperm itself
• THIS IS NOT CONTACEPTION!
• Not all sperm will be destroyed upon entry
• Sperm travel in great numbers,
outer ones protect the inner ones
• The HYMEN also forms a barrier to invaders
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
IMMUNITY
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The Uterus
This is the site of human development
It must be protected to ensure healthy offspring
It can form a protein barrier around itself to prevent
the transmission of some types of germs between
mother & fetus
THIS IS…
• Just a few of the stories in the ongoing saga of
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HUMAN BIOLOGY!!