THE TIPPING POINT: MOVING FOSTER YOUTH INTO AND
THROUGH COLLEGE
A Thesis
Presented to the faculty of the Department of Graduate & Professional Studies in
Education
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
Education
(Higher Education Leadership)
by
Kerry Wood
SPRING
2013
© 2013
Kerry Wood
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ii
THE TIPPING POINT: MOVING FOSTER YOUTH INTO AND
THROUGH COLLEGE
A Thesis
by
Kerry Wood
Approved by:
________________________________, Committee Chair
Geni Cowan, PhD
________________________________, Second Reader
Victoria Rosario, EdD
___________________________
Date
iii
Student: Kerry Wood
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded for the thesis.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator
Geni Cowan, Ph.D.
___________________
Date
Department of Graduate & Professional Studies in Education
iv
Abstract
of
THE TIPPING POINT: MOVING FOSTER YOUTH INTO AND
THROUGH COLLEGE
by
Kerry Wood
Statement of Problem
There have been several studies conducted, as the subsequent literature review of
this paper suggests, that examine the role of education in a foster youth’s life, the current
support systems that exist, and the challenges facing foster youth to enter the higher
education realm. The question being considered here is what the tipping point is that
moves a foster youth into and through college and toward a higher education degree or
vocational certificate. Factors that positively encourage foster youth to pursue a higher
education are also described.
Sources of Data
In an effort to learn more about specific programs that exist to support foster
youth within the college environment, a 23-question, quantitative and qualitative survey
was administered to college students enrolled in a college support program designed
especially for foster youth. The goal of the survey was to obtain firsthand information on
several items: about a) the students’ opinion of the program; b) resources utilized by
these students and how they rate them; c) their academic goals and what inspired them to
v
enroll in college; and d) and their current support systems.
The specific questions being studied in this research are:
1.
What are the precursors to and special needs for college entry for
former foster youth?
2.
What is the response of educational experts and higher education
institutions to the needs of students who are former foster youth?
3.
What are the recognizable factors that move a foster youth toward and
through college?
Conclusions Reached
The research suggests that the students surveyed in this study find their oncampus foster youth support program to be effective and important in their academic
success. The literature makes a clear case for the special needs of foster youth, ranging
from financial assistance to housing, academic counseling, and one, caring adult to guide
them through life. Subsequently, educational leaders have demonstrated the need for
emulating successful foster youth-focused programs at colleges and universities to
address basic living needs and the caring guidance each student needs to support them
through the academic challenges and opportunities they face.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Geni Cowan, PhD
_______________________
Date
vi
DEDICATION
I wish to dedicate this thesis to my mother, Karen O’Hara. As a former foster
youth, successful businesswoman, and loving mother, she has taught me, through
example, that if you want something badly enough, you will find the energy, time, and
resources to make it happen. I am truly grateful to have her as my hero.
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First, I would like to thank my husband, Sam Wood, for being so understanding
and supportive of my educational goals by opening up the space and time for me to finish
my studies.
I would also like to thank my son, Dylan, for being my cheerleader, for his hugs
and support while I was otherwise challenged by my educational pursuits, and for giving
me a reason to reach for the sky.
My warm thanks go to my friends (you know who you are) for constantly
encouraging me and asking for progress reports.
Thanks to Dr. Victoria Rosario for serving as my second reader and for being a
role model for what can be accomplished as a leader, a mother, and an educator.
Finally, yet importantly, a big thanks to Dr. Geni Cowan for all of the guidance,
patience, and invaluable knowledge that were provided to us throughout the program,
especially in the midst of budget cuts and limited resources that have left her nearly a
one-woman show. This research would not have been successful without her expert help
and assistance.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication .................................................................................................................. vii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables .............................................................................................................. xi
List of Figures ............................................................................................................ xii
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ................................................................. 1
Background ....................................................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem ................................................................................. 6
Definition of Terms........................................................................................... 6
Significance of the Study ................................................................................. 8
Organization of the Thesis .............................................................................. 10
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .............................................................. 12
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 12
Understanding the Special Needs of Foster Youth ......................................... 13
Social Service Needs....................................................................................... 14
Foster Youth Mental Health Issues ................................................................. 15
Educational Attainment .................................................................................. 19
Barriers to Higher Education .......................................................................... 22
Response of Educational Experts.................................................................... 27
Campus-Based Programs ................................................................................ 35
Private and Public Benefit of Higher Education ............................................. 41
Recognizing the Factors .................................................................................. 42
Model Programs .............................................................................................. 43
Mentoring and Positive Adult Role Models ................................................... 45
Independent Living Programs ......................................................................... 46
Meeting Unmet Needs .................................................................................... 47
ix
Summary and Study Rationale........................................................................ 60
3. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 61
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 61
Population and Sample ................................................................................... 61
Setting of the Study......................................................................................... 62
Research Design.............................................................................................. 63
Data Collection Procedures............................................................................. 65
Instrumentation ............................................................................................... 65
Data Analysis Procedures ............................................................................... 66
Limitations of the Study.................................................................................. 67
4. DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS ................................................................. 69
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 69
Presentation of the Data .................................................................................. 70
Findings and Interpretation of the Data .......................................................... 88
5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................ 92
Summary ......................................................................................................... 92
Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 93
Recommendations ......................................................................................... 100
Appendix A. Interview Questions........................................................................... 104
Appendix B. Information and Consent Letter......................................................... 110
References .................................................................................................................113
x
LIST OF TABLES
Tables
1
Page
Inspiration for College .................................................................................... 87
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures
Page
1
Participants’ Demographic Data Aggregated ................................................. 70
2
Age Upon Graduating from High School ....................................................... 72
3
Location of High School ................................................................................. 73
4
Public or Private High School ........................................................................ 74
5
Support Services While in High School ........................................................ 75
6
High School Preparation for College ............................................................. 76
7
Most Used Programs and Services in College ................................................ 77
8
Participation in Foster Youth Program at College .......................................... 78
9
Overall Ranking of College Program for Foster Youth .................................. 79
10
Length of Time Enrolled in a Community College ........................................ 81
11
Major in College ............................................................................................. 82
12
Goal as a College Student ............................................................................... 83
13
Most Important Support Systems.................................................................... 84
14
Mentor in the Student’s Life ........................................................................... 85
15
Current Living Situation ................................................................................. 86
xii
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
Background
Across the nation, approximately 500,000 children are temporarily placed in
foster care because their families are unable to care for them. Of these, 100,000 live in
California (California College Pathways, 2011). Nationally, there are approximately
30,000 foster youth who emancipate out of the foster care system with little to no concept
of how to move forward with their lives. Fulfilling their basic needs is at the forefront of
their minds in terms of shelter, food, and clothing. Education remains out of reach for
many foster youth who simply have little to no support to move beyond fulfilling their
basic needs and into planning for their future.
Of California’s foster youth, 80 percent have repeated a grade by the third grade
and only one in 20 is proficient in math by their junior year in high school. As a result,
foster youth are far less likely to graduate from high school, go on to college, and
complete post-secondary education than their peers. The situation is exacerbated as those
who emancipate out of the system, are more likely to experience poverty, suffer from
mental health issues, become homeless or incarcerated, and rely on public assistance for
basic needs such as food, clothing, and shelter.
Youth formerly in foster care face many challenges that impede their
opportunities for higher education. For foster youth who enter into post secondary
2
education, the challenges are often insurmountable without the intervention of caring
campus professionals who serve as coaches and mentors.
Education is the key to economic well-being and personal success for youth.
Studies have repeatedly shown that attaining a bachelor’s degree not only increases
employment opportunities for individuals, but can also have a significant impact on
lifetime earnings (California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office [CCCCO],
2013a). According to the CCCCO (2013a), the average Californian will go on to earn
$2.2 million over his or her lifetime once they receive a bachelor’s degree or roughly$1.3
million more than those with only a high school diploma. Californians without a degree
that have some college education can still expect to earn nearly $340,000 more in their
lifetime than if they had not attended college at all. Graduating from a four-year college
or university reduces the time the average Californian will spend in poverty by four years
and decreases the number of expected years that an individual will receive cash aid by
more than two years. College completion not only means better individual economic
outcomes, but also increases state tax revenues and decreases costs spent on social
welfare programs and incarceration. A recent study found that a $1 investment in
California higher education yields a return of $4.50. In short, higher education is an
opportunity for individuals to escape economic instability and poverty, which benefits all
Californians (College Pathways, 2011).
The benefits of college completion, however, elude those coming out of foster
care. High school completion data indicates only half complete high school, compared
with 70 percent in the general population, and that they are more likely to complete the
3
GED (Gustavsson & MacEachron, 2012). The statistics for foster youth in the United
States who go on to obtain a higher education are also staggering. Only 20 percent of
foster youth who graduate from high school attend college, as compared with 60 percent
of their non-foster care peers. According to Marklein (2012), “70% of youth who are
aging out of foster care plan to attend college yet only three percent to five percent
actually complete a bachelor's degree” (p. 43). These regretful outcomes are closely
connected to a pattern of educational struggle over time as evidenced by this degree
attainment data making it increasingly clear that the dreams of a bachelor’s degree are far
out of reach for California’s foster youth.
Numerous barriers make it difficult for foster youth to achieve their educational
goals. Why these children are not prepared can be attributed, in part, to the child welfare
system which has traditionally done a poor job of encouraging foster youth to pursue
postsecondary education. Many foster youth are not given opportunities to explore their
options or are not provided with information about applying to schools. This could be
because foster youth are not expected to achieve much when it comes to education or
because child welfare workers and foster parents are not trained to help them navigate the
higher education process (Emerson, 2007. Unrau, Font and Rawls (2012) reported that
foster youth are less prepared academically upon entering college and this performance
gap persists through the first semester of college. The findings concluded that college
freshmen who have aged out of foster care lag behind their peers in academic
achievement and foster youth report significantly less family support compared to other
freshmen in college.
4
Another study conducted by the National Center on Education Statistics (2013),
followed a representative sample of first-time undergraduates from the time they entered
college in the fall of 1995 though the spring of 2001. It was found that nearly two-thirds
of the emancipated foster youth at a four-year university reported the foster care system
did not prepare them well for college. Second, even if they have a high school diploma,
foster youth may not be prepared for the academic demands of college. This might be the
case if frequent school changes disrupted their education, as often happens when foster
care placements are unstable, or if they are tracked into high school courses for the noncollege-bound. Third, unlike many of their peers, most foster youth cannot depend on
their parents or other family members to help them pay for college nor can they turn to
their families for emotional support. This coupled with their lack of independent living
skills and the academic demands of college can result in former foster youth feeling
overwhelmed. Fourth, under federal financial aid law, all wards or dependents of the
court are considered “financially independent,” which means that parent or guardian
income does not affect their eligibility for financial aid (Emerson, 2006). However,
foster youth are often unaware of the financial aid for which they are eligible. Fifth,
foster youth are much more likely to exhibit emotional and behavioral problems than
their non-foster peers, and this disparity seems to persist into early adulthood.
Studies of foster youth also indicated that they are more likely to become
involved in delinquent behaviors, demonstrate poorer overall school performance,
manifest learning disabilities and evidence poor interpersonal skills with peers and
siblings. These mental health problems may interfere with the ability of former foster
5
youth to succeed in school, particularly if the treatment they were receiving while in care
is discontinued after their discharge, an all too common occurrence. These problems
appear to be exacerbated when children have an unstable foster care experience (Simmel,
2006). This research suggested that part of the problem may be “attributed to the pattern
of multiple placements during middle to late adolescence that creates disruption in
youth’s psychosocial development. The psychosocial risk operates largely through
absence of a consistent caregiver with whom the youth can develop a caring relationship”
(Jones, 2008, p. 248). Moreover, while census data indicates youth in the general
population leave the parental home at age 23, return home after an initial stalled attempt
to live independently, and then finally depart the home is 28, foster youth are expected to
become independent at a much earlier age than their general population counterparts (US
Census Bureau, 2013). This factor alone makes the transition to independence more
difficult for foster youth than for youth in the general population. Yet, foster youth also
have the added burden of leaving foster care without adequate education or the life skills
needed to emerge as well-functioning adults.
There are many programs throughout the nation to support foster youth while they
are in primary and secondary school, yet fewer programs exist for those about to age out
of the foster care system and enter adulthood. This study seeks to examine the tipping
point that encourages a foster youth to consider college, enroll in college, and
successfully obtain a degree or certification. From mentoring to financial aid, the myriad
of services and programs available to college-age foster youth are haphazard at best and
are seldom provided to all those in need. Additional findings from this study, through
6
both literature review and a firsthand study of foster youth in a community college, will
uncover those services used most widely and considered most valuable by this vulnerable
population. The implications of the results herein could lead to recommendations for a
model program or identify elements of programs that can be replicated elsewhere.
Statement of the Problem
While the aspirations of former foster youth appear to reflect a desire to pursue
college, a number of barriers including poor academic preparation, disruptive foster care
settings, and limited knowledge of college resources contribute to low degree attainment
rates for this vulnerable population. If this problem is not addressed, student services
personnel at most postsecondary institutions will continue to be unfamiliar with or
prepared to address the unique needs of this growing population. Even programs that
target low-income and first-generation-in-college students were not designed with the
specific challenges faced by former foster youth in mind (Dworsky & Perez, 2010).
Definition of Terms
BOG Fee Waiver: California residents may apply for the California Community
Colleges Board of Governors Fee Waiver (BOGFW), which waives the $46 per unit
enrollment fee (College Financial Resources, 2013).
Cal Grant: A grant in which students can get up to $12,192 a year to pay for
college expenses at any qualifying California college, university or career or technical
7
school in California, which may be used for tuition, room and board, even books and
supplies (California Student Aid Commission, 2013).
CalWorks: A welfare program that gives cash aid and services to eligible needy
California families (California Department of Social Services, 2013).
Certificate: A document issued to a person completing a course of study not
leading to a diploma, which verifies that one has fulfilled the requirements of and may
practice in a specific field (Merriam-Webster, 2004).
Chafee Grant: If a student is or was in foster care and has financial need, up to
$5,000 a year for career and technical training or college is available. These funds can be
used to help pay for child care, transportation and rent while the student is in school at
any eligible California college or university or career or technical school, as well as
schools in other states (California Student Aid Commission, 2013).
Emancipation: The act of youth moving, or aging out, from foster care or out-ofhome care, typically after 18 years of age (US Department of Health and Human
Services, 2009).
Federal Financial Aid: Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) offers
student financial assistance programs authorized under Title IV of the Higher Education
Act of 1965. These programs provide grants, loans, and work-study funds to students
attending college or career school (College Financial Resources, 2013).
Foster Care: Placing a child in the temporary care of a family other than its own
as the result of problems or challenges that are taking place within the birth family, or
while critical elements of an adoption are being completed (Adoption.com, 2013).
8
Foster Youth: Children that are in the legal guardianship or custody of a state,
county, or private adoption or foster care agency, yet are cared for by foster parents in
their own homes, under some kind of short-term or long-term foster care arrangement
with the custodial agency. These children will generally remain in foster care until they
are reunited with their parents, or until their parents voluntarily consent to their adoption
by another family, or until the court involuntarily terminates or severs the parental right
of their biological parents, so that they can become available to be adopted by another
family (Adoption.com, 2013).
Section 8 Funding: The housing choice voucher program (Section 8 funding is
part of the US Department of Housing and Urban Development) is the federal
government's major program for assisting very low-income families, the elderly, and the
disabled to afford decent, safe, and sanitary housing in the private market. Since housing
assistance is provided on behalf of the family or individual, participants are able to find
their own housing, including single-family homes, townhouses and apartments (Housing
and Urban Development [HUD], 2013).
Significance of the Study
There have been several studies conducted, as the subsequent literature review of
this paper suggests, that examine the role of education in a foster youth’s life, the current
support systems that exist, and the academic and cultural challenges facing foster youth.
The question being considered here is what the tipping point is that moves a foster youth
into and through college and toward a higher education degree or certificate. The
9
research also describes factors that positively encourage foster youth to pursue a higher
education.
Colleges and universities are starting to take notice of foster youth as an
underserved student population, and campus programs designed to provide financial and
academic support to foster youth have grown exponentially over the past several years.
According to Marklein (2012), spurring much of the recent activity is a 2008 federal law
that makes it less costly for states to extend foster care beyond age 18. That is becoming
increasingly critical because, even as the number of children in foster care has declined,
the proportion who leave care without an adoptive family has increased, from 7.1% in
2001 to more than 11% in 2010. Other supports to students who have aged out of foster
care are increasing. For example, the California Community Colleges Chancellor’s
Office (CCCCO) has developed specialized programs for foster youth to enter and
succeed in college, such as the Foster Youth Success Initiative (FYSI) that provides
support to foster youth to guide them through the community college process and toward
completion (CCCCO, 2013a).
The approach to this study is a combination of literature review from both
nationwide and local perspectives, statistics on foster youth in general and those enrolled
in college, and county and state information about current programs that exist to support
foster youth in their educational pursuits. The significance of the findings and this study
will result in current data and information, both firsthand through student surveys
conducted at a local community college, and through others’ research in this area. While
several programs for foster youth exist, there is much speculation about whether or not
10
there is one prevailing service that works or if it is a combination of programs and
services that helps a foster youth succeed in college. The results of this study conclude
with recommendations for improvements to existing college programs that serve former
foster youth which may serve as a model for others to replicate.
Organization of the Thesis
This paper is organized into five chapters. First, an introduction and background
for the study is included to provide an overview of the topic, a statement of the problem,
the significance of the study, and an explanation of how the thesis is organized. Chapter
Two follows with a review of related literature with three subtopics: 1) understanding the
special needs of college students who are former foster youth is critical to the foundation
of studying their transition to and pertinence through college; 2) identifying the response
of educational experts and higher education institutions to the needs of students who are
former foster youth will provide insight into whether or not a parallel exists between what
a student believes he or she needs and what the educational system provides; and 3)
recognizing the factors that move a foster youth toward and through college. The chapter
concludes with a rationale for the study based on findings from the literature review.
Chapter Three explains the methodology used, the setting of the study, the
research design and target population, and an explanation of the data collection process.
A description of the data analysis process and the limitations of the study complete this
chapter. In Chapter Four, the data from the survey is presented along with the findings
and interpretation of the data. Interpretations and perceptions will be shared based on the
11
results of the survey and what was gleaned from the literature review. Chapter Five
summarizes the study and provides conclusions and recommendations for further study.
America's young adults who grow up in foster care (typically 18 years old) are
among the most disadvantaged in terms of opportunities for personal achievement and
well-being in the nation. They are more likely than other young adults to experience
unemployment, homelessness, and poverty and are less likely to graduate high school or
attend college. Yet, the majority of foster youth desire to go to college. College and
universities need to join with child welfare agencies to help support foster youth to access
and succeed in college. More fully understanding the tipping point that motivates and
inspires current and former foster youth to enter, and ultimately, succeed in a community
college can serve as a guide for college faculty, high school administrators and student
services professionals in developing programs that support foster youth in their academic
success.
12
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
On the topic of foster youth, there are endless articles and data that describe the
conditions under which many foster youth live. In addition, many researchers and
scholars have developed studies that follow foster youth from emancipation to college
and track their progress or lack thereof. In this chapter, several resources, dominantly
scholarly, peer reviewed articles, with a sampling of popular literature to gain an
understanding of the general public’s view of foster youth and higher education, will be
identified and summarized for their role in supporting the goal of understanding what the
tipping point(s) is (or are) that make(s) a former foster youth enter and stay in college.
For this study, three subtopics are examined. First, understanding the precursors
to and special needs of college students who are former foster youth is critical to the
foundation of studying their transition to and persistence through college. Whether it
concerns basic needs or psychological challenges, fully grasping the barriers they
experience in college and the resources available to them, is important information that
will guide the expansion and improvement of programs specifically supporting the
special needs of emancipated foster youth.
Second, comparing the response of educational experts and higher education
institutions to the needs of students who are former foster youth will provide insight into
13
whether there is alignment between the expressed needs of former foster youth and what
the educational system provides.
Third, it will be important to recognize the factors that move a foster youth
toward and through college. The literature will highlight college programs for former
foster youth and describe the factors that increase degree completion rates for this
population.
Understanding the Special Needs of Foster Youth
The following numbers give a broad picture of the number of children in the
foster care system during 2010. In September 2010, there were an estimated 498,425
children in foster care. During 2010, 254,375 children entered foster care and 254,114
children exited foster care. From 2000 to 2010, the numbers of children in foster care
and the numbers of children who entered and exited care during the year decreased by
nearly eight percent (US Department of Health and Human Services, 2009.
Every year nearly 30,000 foster youth emancipate from foster care in the United
States (US Department of Health and Human Services, 2009). These youth face a
number of challenges, including completing high school, coping with mental illness and
substance abuse, attaining health insurance, finding employment and earning a living
wage, and securing stable housing (Mares, 2010).
One effort, for example, assessed the independent living services needs of
emancipating foster youth in Lucas County (Toledo), Ohio. Mares (2010) used a mixed
methods approach that included: (a) an examination of administrative client data from the
14
Lucas County Department of Children Services (LCCS) Independent Living Program; (b)
focus groups with current and former foster youth; and, (c) a self-administered survey of
public and private agency transitional and independent living service providers. Both the
focus group participants and the service providers identified what they perceived to be
the needs of emancipating foster youth. Focus group members also displayed a lack of
awareness of existing independent living resources in the community, and limited interest
in post-emancipation support services. The results were used to generate ten
recommendations for LCCS, community service providers, and philanthropic funders.
Social Service Needs
The findings of this local independent living needs assessment study stress that
youth transitioning to adulthood need supportive adults and access to basic housing and
supportive services typically provided by birth or adoptive parents to youth throughout
their late teens and twenties. These needs range from help with job applications to
finding reliable transportation. The level and type of assistance provided to meet the
needs of emancipating foster youth differ in each community due in large part to
differences in state, local and regional public children services agencies, private service
providers, the availability of public and philanthropic funds, and other factors at the
community-level (Mares, 2010).
15
Foster Youth Mental Health Issues
According to Jackson (2011), little is known about the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adult alumni of foster care and its demographic and
contextual correlates. The study highlighted reports on racial/ethnic and gender
differences and the influence of foster care experiences (i.e., re-victimization during
foster care, placement change rate, and placement in kinship care) on past year PTSD.
Findings revealed significant gender disparities and a moderating influence of kinship
care on the relationship between gender and PTSD, as well as increased risk associated
with a history of emotional and sexual abuse. Recommendations are made for clinical
and systemic.
Events and environments experienced in childhood can have effects on
development, behavior, health, mental health, and other functional outcomes into
adulthood. This is certainly the case for people who experience child abuse and neglect.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a major diagnosis associated with early child
maltreatment. Criteria for diagnosis include experiencing or witnessing events where
one’s life or the lives of others are threatened or there is a real or perceived risk of serious
injury accompanied by intense feelings of fear, helplessness, or horror. Additionally, the
traumatized person must have event-related symptoms (for at least one month) of (1) reexperiencing or reliving the trauma through thoughts, dreams, feelings, or other
psychological distress; (2) persistent avoidance of or emotional numbing related to
reminders of the trauma; and (3) increased arousal (e.g., difficulty sleeping or
concentrating, irritability or angry outbursts, hyper-vigilance, or exaggerated startle
16
response). Still, very few studies have examined how various contextual factors related
to foster care (e.g., placement changes, type of placements, re-victimization during
placement) affect long-term mental health outcomes. Even less well understood is
whether race/ethnicity and gender influence long-term outcomes when maltreated
children are removed from their families of origin and cared for in the context of the child
welfare system (Jackson, 2011).
This investigation addressed an important need to understand background and
contextual risk factors for past year PTSD among diverse adult foster care alumni. It
revealed, younger age, emotional and sexual abuse, re-victimization, and the interplay
between gender and kinship care, may be areas in which child welfare and mental health
systems could target services that help reduce the long-term mental health effects of
adverse childhood experiences. Comprehensive information on child maltreatment,
trauma, and foster care to be used with biological parents, formal and informal kinship
caregivers, foster parents, educators, and other service providers would help ensure that
every young person exits foster care with an understanding of the potential for short- and
long-term effects of early traumatic experiences. This would include experiences in the
system, knowledge, and experience of how to access services and resources appropriate
to their needs; a toolbox of healthy coping skills; and a close relationship with a caring
adult who understands their history, their needs, and shares their hope for a good life.
Missing from the debate has been a clear understanding of the specific subgroups of
adopted youth who may develop behavior problems and of the risk factors associated
with various vulnerable populations. In response to this phenomenon, Simmel (2006)
17
studied psychological dysfunction on adopted youth as compared with non-adopted
youth. This longitudinal study former foster children as one subpopulation of adopted
youth in order to determine their immediate and long-term functioning, when compared
with their adopted non-foster care peers in regards to the prevalence of behavioral
problems. Participants included 312 adopted foster youth from a statewide sample of
adopted youth, aged two to 18 years. Data were collected from the adoptive parents at
approximately two, four, and eight years after adoption. According to parental reports,
a striking number of the foster youth displayed behavior problems, although the nonfoster care group of children also displayed noteworthy levels of problem behaviors. The
rates of behavior problems in both groups far exceed what is observed in the general
population of children.
In addition to being at increased risk for the display of psychological disorders,
studies of foster youth also indicate that these children are more likely to become
involved in delinquent behaviors, demonstrate poorer overall school performance,
manifest learning disabilities and evidence poor interpersonal skills with peers and
siblings. These problems appear to be exacerbated when children have an unstable foster
care experience (Simmel, 2006). A consistent finding in the research on all groups of
adopted children is that boys are found to display more behavior problems, particularly in
the externalizing domain, than girls, and are more likely to be the focus of clinical
attention and services. Indeed, even in the general non-adopted population, subsequent
mental-health outcomes for boys who manifest behavior problems at a young age are
much poorer than they are for girls. Yet, although being an adopted male may indicate
18
certain negative outcomes, it is not clear among researchers whether gender constitutes
an increased risk for these outcomes. Moreover, whether or not adopted foster girls, who
will certainly have encountered many of the same negative pre-adoption risk factors as
boys, are also at risk for subsequent negative outcomes has not been investigated.
Furthermore, because it is a longitudinal data set collected at three different points
in the children’s lives, measurements of and trajectories pertaining to the display
of these symptoms were assessed. Additional a priori questions included the
following. Do adopted foster children’s symptoms arise early in life but improve
with time? Do they worsen over time? Are there gender differences within the
groups in terms of how symptoms and other behavioral impairments are
displayed? In order to examine the mental-health needs and functioning of
adopted foster youth, this study presents a unique approach. A prospective study
was conducted on a sample composed entirely of adopted youth, based on a
California statewide population survey. Because it is not a clinical sample,
diagnostic biases of professionals are not an issue. (Simmel, 2006, p. 340)
Using a structured and widely used instrument, adoptive parents appraised symptoms but
did not make a diagnostic judgment. Thus, there were no diagnoses of the children in the
study, but instead measuring which children fell into the clinical range of both
internalizing and externalizing behavior problems.
The results of this study provided an original contribution to the child welfare
field. Longitudinal studies of adopted foster youth and of their mental-health functioning
are lacking and this study helps fill that void. The findings suggested that adopted foster
19
youth are more behaviorally impaired than their non-foster adoptive counterparts,
although the latter group is not problem-free. Moreover, the rate of internalizing and
externalizing challenging behavior in these youth exceeds the rate in the general
population of latency-aged children by several times. The pattern of their difficulties
appears very early in their placements and continues at a parallel course throughout the
adoptive placement. Although the distinct rates of behavior impairments can possibly be
attributed to crucial differences in the pre-adoptive backgrounds of the two groups of
adopted children in this study, the impact that these histories have on their psychosocial
functioning should be examined in a separate study (Simmel, 2006).
Educational Attainment
Specific to the greater Sacramento region, the Sacramento County Children’s
Coalition (2012) stated, “Foster youth in Sacramento face more adversity than their peers
around the state. Children facing adversity can develop the resiliency to rebound from
traumatic experiences if there is one person in their life who supports and believes in
them” (p. 4). As a whole, children are resilient, despite many challenges to their healthy
development. Without continuing support from the community, and without stable,
committed relationships from adults, children are not able to reach their full potential,
and in fact, experience quite negative outcomes. Key Findings for Sacramento County:

Nearly 90% of youth report moderate to high access to supportive assets in
school and community environments.

The percentage of children reporting that they receive psychological or
20
emotional counseling in Sacramento County is more than double the statewide
average.

Transition age foster youth experience substantially lower rates of graduation
and employment, and substantially higher rates of juvenile justice
involvement and homelessness than their peers.

Children placed in foster care in Sacramento County are half as likely placed
with kin than reported in statewide averages (Sacramento County, 2011).
Students who attend institutions of higher education obtain a wide range of
personal, financial, and other lifelong benefits; likewise, taxpayers and society as a whole
derive a multitude of direct and indirect benefits when citizens have access to
postsecondary education (College Pathways, 2011). Accordingly, uneven rates of
participation in higher education across different segments of US society should be a
matter of urgent concern not only to the individuals directly affected, but also to public
policymakers at the federal, state, and local levels.
The benefits of individuals with higher levels of education earn more and are
more likely than others to be employed. Median earnings of bachelor’s degree recipients
working full-time in 2008 were $55,700, $21,900 more than median earnings of high
school graduates. Individuals with some college but no degree earned 17% more than
high school graduates working full-time year-round. Their median after-tax earnings
were 16% higher. For young adults between the ages of 20 and 24, the unemployment
rate in the fourth quarter of 2009 for high school graduates was 2.6 times as high as that
for college graduates (Baum, Ma & Payea, 2010).
21
Unrau (2011) conducted a study that compares self-reported readiness to engage
in college between a sample of 81 college freshmen who aged out of foster care prior to
or while attending a large four-year public university and the national freshman
population. Results indicated that students from foster care are significantly different
from their non-foster-care peers in their readiness to engage in college. The results also
showed that foster youth are less prepared academically upon entering college and this
performance gap persists through the first semester of college. The general findings
concluded: 1) College freshmen who have aged out of foster care lag behind their peers
in academic achievement; 2) Foster youth report generally more motivation to engage in
college compared to other freshmen; 3) Foster youth report significantly less family
support compared to other freshmen in college (Unrau et al., 2012).
Gustavsson and MacEachron (2012) further explained that youth in out-of-home
care are likely to struggle academically. Foster youth are at an elevated risk for a number
of negative educational outcomes: low graduation rates, special education enrollment,
grade retention, school behavioral problems, poor academic performance, behavioral
health challenges, and school mobility. In each of these areas, foster youth continue to be
at a disadvantage.
The literature indicated that about half of foster children complete high school,
compared with 70 percent in the general population, and that GED completion is more
likely for foster care youth (Gustavsson & MacEachron, 2012). College attendance and
completion rates are even lower. Only 20 percent of foster care youth who graduate from
high school attend college, as compared with 60 percent of their non-foster care peers.
22
These regretful outcomes are closely connected to a pattern of educational struggle over
time (Gustavsson & MacEachron, 2012).
Foster care youth are more likely to be placed in special education classes than are
their non-foster care peers. Approximately 23 percent to 47 percent of school-age foster
children receive special education services at some time, in comparison to the 12 percent
annual rate for all school-age children. Foster care youth are more likely to repeat a
grade than are their non-foster care peers. A recent review of the research found that
grade retention for foster care youth was double the rate for youth not in care. Foster care
youth may experience high rates of absenteeism, suspensions, expulsions, and other
school problems that may hinder their academic progress. About one-quarter of foster
children had been suspended or expelled at least once. In a study of former foster care
youth, it found that these youth were about four times more likely to be expelled than
were youth in a national sample (16.5 percent versus 4.6 percent) and more than twice as
likely to be suspended (66.8 percent versus 27.8 percent) (Gustavsson & MacEachron,
2012).
Barriers to Higher Education
The problem is not that foster youth have less desire to pursue postsecondary
education. On the contrary, research suggests that the majority of foster youth have
college aspirations. However, numerous barriers make it difficult for foster youth to
achieve their educational goals. First, the child welfare system has traditionally done a
poor job of encouraging foster youth to pursue postsecondary education (Emerson, 2006).
23
Many foster youth are not given opportunities to explore their options or are not provided
with information about applying to schools. This could be because foster youth are not
expected to achieve much when it comes to education or because child welfare workers
and foster parents are not trained to help them navigate the application process.
Pecora (2006) addressed the educational achievements of former foster youth
through the examination of case records and interviews concerning educational
achievements of 1,087 foster care alumni. Because the alumni were older than most
foster care follow-up studies, a more extensive picture of educational achievement was
possible. High school graduation and college enrollment rates were comparable to or
even greater than those of the general population, but the number of alumni completing
high school with a Graduate Equivalency Diploma and the college dropout rates were a
concern. Predictors of high school completion while in foster care, such as fewer
placement changes, extracurricular activities and independent living training, are
presented, along with recommendations for improving educational and vocational
preparation. More than one in 10 case files (11.0%) indicated the presence of a diagnosis
for a physical or medical illness or chronic condition of some kind. More than half of the
alumni (50.6%) had been professionally diagnosed with a psychological disorder at some
point in their childhood. Mental health and employment services were the most
commonly provided services to youth.
A substantial proportion (72.5%) of alumni had received a high-school diploma or
GED by the time their case closed. The high school completion rate at follow-up was
even higher: 86.1% (including those who obtained a GED). If alumni ages 25 years and
24
older are included, the rate increases to 87.8%, substantially higher than the 80.4%
completion rate of the US general population (Pecora, et al., 2006).
A study conducted by the National Center on Education Statistics followed a
representative sample of first-time undergraduates from the time they entered college in
the fall of 1995 through the spring of 2001. Nearly two-thirds of the emancipated foster
youth at a four-year university reported that the foster care system did not prepare them
very well for college.
Second, even if they have a high school diploma, foster youth may not be
prepared for the academic demands of college. This might be the case if frequent school
changes disrupted their education, as often happens when foster care placements are
unstable, or if they are tracked into high school courses for the non-college-bound.
Third, unlike many of their peers, most foster youth cannot depend on their parents or
other family members to help them pay for college nor can they turn to their families for
emotional support. This, coupled with their lack of independent living skills and the
academic demands of college, can result in former foster youth feeling overwhelmed.
Fourth, under federal financial aid law, all wards or dependents of the court are
considered “financially independent,” which means that parent or guardian income does
not affect their eligibility for financial aid (Emerson, 2006). However, foster youth are
often unaware of the financial aid for which they are eligible. Fifth, foster youth are
much more likely to exhibit emotional and behavioral problems than their non-foster
peers, and this disparity seems to persist into early adulthood. These mental health
problems may interfere with the ability of former foster youth to succeed in school,
25
particularly if the treatment they were receiving while in care is discontinued after their
discharge, an all too common occurrence. Finally, the student services personnel at most
postsecondary institutions are not familiar with or prepared to address the unique needs
of this population. Even programs that target low-income and first-generation-in-college
students were not designed with the specific challenges faced by former foster youth in
mind (Dworsky & Perez, 2010).
In a study by the Legal Center (2007), designed to promote educational success
for youth in foster care for parents, foster parents, caseworkers, and educators, eight goals
are suggested to address postsecondary education pursuits. Of primary importance is the
issue of continuing child welfare and court involvement for youth over 18. While
extending jurisdiction for youth over 18 is important for many reasons, education pursuits
are a critical part of this bigger issue.
Jones (2008) addressed the concept that all former foster youth, as adults, have
common needs to become employed, to be financially independent, to develop the skills
to enable them to live autonomously, to build support systems and relate to others, and to
become a contributing member of a larger community. Foster youth, however, are often
uniquely challenged in fulfilling these tasks. The challenges associated with placement
in foster care include, the emotional trauma of abuse and loss, the potential disruption of
family and community ties, the educational deficits that result from frequent placement
changes, and the possible abrupt termination of support from care at age 18 or 19. Foster
youth not only lose state support at emancipation, but they may not have the social and
26
financial supports from the family available to non-foster children when they encounter
difficulties adjusting to independent living.
That foster youth are expected to become independent at a much earlier date than
youth in the general population may also impact educational attainment rates. The US
Census Bureau (2013) data indicated youth in the general population are leaving the
parental home at age 23, and are often returning home after an initial stalled attempt at
living independently. The average age that children in the general population finally
depart the home is 28. All of these challenges make the transition to independence more
difficult for foster youth than for youth in the general population. Youth leave foster care
without an adequate education or the life skills needed to emerge as well-functioning
adults. This research suggested that part of the problem may be attributed to the pattern
of multiple placements during middle to late adolescence that creates disruption in
youth’s psychosocial development. The psychosocial risk operates largely through the
absence of a consistent caregiver with whom the youth can develop a caring relationship
(Jones, 2008).
Jones (2008) also stated that placement instability is also a threat to a youth’s
educational progress since it is associated with frequent school change. The research
suggests that residential mobility has an adverse effect on the learning and academic
achievement of foster youth. Youth who change schools often are at risk of losing credits
and falling behind academically due to delays in enrollment and the transferring of
educational records. Changing schools entails many disruptions for students such as the
loss of relationships with teachers, and a loss in the continuity of instruction.
27
Response of Educational Experts
Zetlin, Weinberg and Shea (2010) examined children in foster care who comprise
a population of students at great risk for school failure. They advocate that child welfare
agencies, schools, and home must all work together to provide the services and supports
required to achieve better results. The purpose of this study was to conduct focus groups
with participants from each sector to discuss their views on the educational problems and
needs of students in foster care and their recommendations for what is needed to improve
the academic prospects of foster students. The authors detailed distinct themes identified
by caregivers, school liaisons, and agency advocates and reveals how each group—while
recognizing that foster students face substantial school problems—operates independent
of each other and lacks a shared view on what is needed. The article concluded with
recommendations for designing a model program that involves all the sectors and
provides an arena for strategically addressing barriers to school success.
There are half a million children in our nation who live away from their families
and communities because of abuse or neglect at home. A third of the children who enter
foster care are younger than age five. Many of these children experience further trauma
when moving from foster home to foster home and from school to school. Although
approximately 40 percent of children entering foster care for the first time reunify with
their parents in fewer than 12 months, many are trapped in the system and remain in
foster care until they "age out" at 18. With no place to go, one in four of the youth who
age out is incarcerated within two years of leaving foster care, one in five becomes
28
homeless at some time after age 18, only 46 percent complete high school, a mere three
percent earn a college degree, and just 51 percent have a job at age 21 (Zetlin, et al,
2010).
The academic records of these children reveal students who experience significant
difficulties in school. Foster youth are more likely than their peers to struggle
academically, socially, and behaviorally in the school setting. When compared with the
school population as a whole, they have higher rates of absenteeism and disciplinary
referrals; three-fourths perform below grade level; more than half have been retained at
least one year in school; they perform significantly lower on standardized achievement
tests in reading and mathematics and earn lower grades in these subjects; and they exhibit
more internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems, including higher rates of
depression, poor social skills, lower adaptive functioning, and more aggression and
impulsivity (Zetlin et al., 2010).
The result of removing these children from their birth families and having public
agencies assume parental rights is public responsibility for the well-being of this
population. Under pressure from the Child and Family Services Review process, child
welfare recently expanded its focus on safety and permanency well-being to include
educational well-being. However, it is clear that child welfare cannot address the
education issues that foster children and youth face alone. No one agency has the
resources or expertise to provide the services and supports required to address the needs
of this high-risk population (Zetlin et al., 2010).
29
Gustavsson and MacEachron (2012) stated that recent child welfare legislation
requires agencies to address the educational well-being of foster youth. Schools face new
accountability standards through the No Child Left Behind Act and the Obama Blueprint
for Reform as they move toward the goal of ensuring that all children receive a quality
education. Both of these pieces of legislation can work together at the macro and the
micro level to reduce the historical impediments to educational success for foster youth.
The authors reviewed the challenges, the education and child welfare legislation, and
suggest an action plan for schools to help foster youth and their parents or caretakers to
improve educational outcomes.
Foster youth are vulnerable to poor educational outcomes. Child welfare policy
recognizes the educational challenges of these youth and has become more active in
trying to reduce the vulnerabilities.
The most recent legislation, the Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing
Adoptions Act of 2008, adds new requirements for child welfare agencies to
attend to the well-being needs of foster children. Our focus here is on the
educational well-being of foster children from three perspectives: (1) the need as
described by research evidence, (2) the new joint emphasis on meeting
educational needs and accountability in child welfare legislation, and (3) new
national educational initiatives as they affect at-risk children and youth. We also
suggest an educational action plan for school social workers. (Gustavsson &
MacEachron., 2012, p. 71)
30
With half a million children in care and 71 percent of school age, it is imperative
that the educational outcomes for these youth improve. The education field has also
experienced major legislative change through the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of
2001. The goal is to improve educational outcomes for all youth. Given the unique
status and vulnerability to risk of youth in foster care, the NCLB reforms may
unintentionally disadvantage foster care youth by not requiring a specific focus on their
unique needs to receive a quality education (Gustavsson & MacEachron, 2012).
In 1986, Congress created the Title IV-E Independent Living Program, which
provided states with funds that they could use to prepare their foster youth for the
transition to adulthood. This program was later replaced by the John Chafee Foster Care
Independence Program (CFCIP) in 1999 as part of the Foster Care Independence Act
(FCIA). The FCIA provided states with a maximum of $140-million each year that can
be used to provide independent living services to foster youth still in care (generally 15–
17 years of age) and post-emancipation services to former foster youth (generally 18–21
years of age). In 2002, another $60-million in federal funding was added for a postsecondary education and training voucher (ETV) program (Mares, 2010).
Gustavsson and MacEachron (2012) further examined youth in various states
throughout the nation and found that youth exiting care in Alaska reported that youth
spent an average of seven years in care, with an average of 13 placements. In
Washington, one-third of youth preparing to exit care had experienced 10 or more
placements and two-thirds had four or more placements. In Illinois, Iowa, and
Wisconsin, one-third had improvement of teacher and school quality as it affects student
31
academic achievement. This emphasis does not change in the Obama Blueprint for
Change, although the methods, sanctions, and funding mechanisms do change. The
emphasis on testing in both policies may unintentionally further marginalize foster care
youth. The threat of sanctions or reorganization can result in reluctance to fully integrate
youth who have historically performed poorly on Foster youth can present complex and
challenging problems to a school system. The intent of legislation in both the child
welfare and education fields is to address barriers to disadvantaged children, a group that
often includes foster youth (Gustavsson & MacEachron, 2012). The school social worker
is in a unique position to offer both practical and concrete assistance to the parties and to
use provisions of various laws to advocate for foster children at the community level.
Completing high school can be seen as a major steppingstone toward successful
adulthood. So what predicts achieving this milestone? In Pecora’s (2006) study, an
exploratory analysis to determine correlates of high school completion before leaving
foster care was conducted. Logistic regression analyses were used to determine which
variables describing the alumnus and his or her experience before and during care
together predicted high school completion. This preliminary model was developed to
examine high school completion among the 979 alumni who left foster care at age 17
years and three months or older and had information available for all the potential
predictors. The analysis produced a model incorporating 14 variables that together best
predicted high school completion through a diploma or a GED. The following
characteristics strongly predicted that an alumnus had completed high school at the time
of the interview:
32

older age of entry into the child welfare system

fewer placement changes;

youth employment experience while in care;

independent living training while in care; and

less criminal behavior
Other predictors included having a good relationship with the most prominent
foster family (defined as the last stay, if three months or longer, or the longest
placement), not needing extensive tutoring and not having school-related psychological
diagnoses. In the model, more time in group care predicted greater odds of high school
completion, but a simple comparison of means found that the high school completers had
less time in group care, with an average of 0.04 years (and a median of 0) as compared
with the mean for the non-completers of 0.06 years (and a median of 0.05), including
foster parents and agency staff. Providing a nurturing foster family and a supportive
agency environment may be significant in ameliorating the effects of earlier abuse and
neglect (Pecora, 2006).
Even with the multiple challenges that these alumni of foster care faced, the high
school graduation rates were positive. This occurred despite many placement changes
(the rate of which slowed significantly after the children entered foster care). Use of the
GED to complete high school and college dropout rates were the greatest concerns in
terms of adult educational achievements. High school completion rates were comparable
to the US general population. GED completion rates were disproportionately high, along
with post-secondary education dropout rates. Factors that are associated with completion
33
of high school while in foster care were identified, along with difficulties in educational
attainment by gender and ethnic/racial group (Pecora, 2006).
Brendtro and Mitchell (2011) examined the role of family, or the lack thereof, and
the relationship between them, their family or guardian, and the educational professional
(K-12 or college faculty and staff) in a student’s overall academic success in their article,
Families as Life Span Experts. They stated that educational professionals dealing with
challenging behavior frequently operate detached from the other relationships in the
child's life. This narrow approach has been called the unilateral strategy based on the
belief that the child's outside world can be ignored and behavior can be changed by
administering specific corrective interventions. In contrast, ecological treatment focuses
on strengthening relationships in the life space of a child's family, school, peers, and
community. No force is more powerful than parents who are the life span experts on
their offspring. But in a climate that blames problems on so-called dysfunctional
families, parents are often the missing team members.
Despite much lip service about parent partnerships in education, most efforts fall
short of this ideal. The prevailing roles that professionals assign to parents are often
demeaning. These include viewing the parent as resistant or adversarial, as inferior or
unintelligent, or as disturbed and needing treatment. Well-intentioned requirements for
parent involvement in special education have become legalistic and rule-bound.
Disagreements may revolve around the most appropriate intervention. Parents may
challenge the judgment of school staff and demand more services, perhaps searching for
34
panacea or a professional who will tell them what they want to hear (Brendtro &
Mitchell, 2011).
Today, millions of youngsters worldwide live in out-of-home care, placed by
courts, social agencies, or through family referral. Some are in family foster care, others
in residential schools or group settings. In all cases, if these youth are to thrive, two
principles are foremost:
1) Quality child and youth care: Those who stand in for parents are responsible
for meeting developmental needs and building competence, regardless of the
severity of problems. This cannot happen if children are shunted through a string
of foster homes or placed in depersonalized, residential facilities. Front-line
caregivers and teachers need practical, specialized training in how to connect with
challenging kids and help them heal and grow. 2) Meaningful contact with
families: Except in rare cases when parent contact is prohibited, the over-arching
goal is to maintain and strengthen family bonds. A classic study of children in
care showed that ongoing family involvement is a powerful predictor of a child's
subsequent positive adjustment. Researchers called for intensified efforts to
involve parents in responsible visiting, carefully document all family contacts,
and scrutinize these data as the best indicator of the long-term fate of these
children. 3) Residential placement can provide a powerful milieu for healing and
growth when staff is attuned to the child's developmental needs. Residential
placement can provide a powerful milieu for healing and growth when staff are
attuned to the child's developmental needs. Otherwise, these placements can
35
further traumatize children who are torn from their parents, subjecting them to
defective surrogate parenting by staff who lack competence or compassion.
(Brendtro et al., 2011, p. 25)
Yet all programs were in perpetual conflict between the goals for change (care
and re-education) versus custody (isolation and punishment). Even so-called treatment
settings were little more than segmented therapeutic practices; this meant the piecemeal
injection of counseling and treatment techniques into programs remained basically
custodial. A key finding of this early research was that regardless of stated
organizational goals, those who are direct caregivers need a positive philosophy and
practical skills to deal with highly challenging behavior. In conflict situations, staff
reverted to folk psychology and techniques of intimidation and punishment. In a real
sense, they were piling more traumas to the lives of troubled youth (Brendtro & Mitchell,
2011).
Campus-Based Programs
College and university programs to support foster youth have grown
exponentially over the past several years. According to Marklein (2012), spurring much
of the recent activity is a 2008 federal law that makes it less costly for states to extend
foster care beyond age 18. That was becoming increasingly critical because, even as the
number of children in foster care has declined, the proportion who leave care without an
adoptive family has increased, from 7.1% in 2001 to more than 11% in 2010.
36
California, home to about a quarter of all foster care youth, is at the forefront of
the trend. The first such program was founded in 1998 at California State University
(CSU), Fullerton. Today, about 79 campuses offer a program for former foster care
youth, up from 31 in 2008. Since the federal law passed, at least 18 states, including
Oregon, Michigan and California, and the District of Columbia have enacted or
strengthened state policies or are considering legislation to extend care up to age 21.
Proposals are pending in several states (Marklein, 2012).
Advocates hope the extended support will enable more foster care youth to
complete college. Research showed that 70% of youth who are aging out of foster care
plan to attend college -- but between three percent and five percent complete a bachelor's
degree, says data compiled by Casey Family Programs, a Seattle-based non-profit that
focuses on foster care issues (Marklein, 2012). Of the nearly 80 campuses across the
nation offering support programs for foster youth, the following describes a sampling of
institutions and their approach to supporting this population.
According to Casey Family Programs (2011), University of California, Los
Angeles (UCLA) is one of a growing number of colleges and universities across the
nation that are offering more services to students who grew up in foster care. The
University of Alaska is piloting a program that provides academic and social support for
18 students. Buena Vista University in Storm Lake, Iowa, this year is providing full
scholarships, year-round housing and summer jobs to three foster care students and is
seeking donors to support more.
37
Metivier, a coordinator of Facing Foster Youth in Alaska, a nonprofit created by
former foster youth, stated, “When youth have their basic needs met like food, clothing
and a stable living situation then they can focus on their education. They aren't making
the transition out of care and starting college all at once” (as cited in Marklein, 2012).
On-campus, support generally falls into two types. Some schools, according to the
California State University (CSU Fullerton, 2013a) offer full scholarships, mentors and
other support to a select group of students. Others, like UCLA’s three-year-old program,
have created an office that connects former foster youth to existing resources, including
each other (UCLA, 2013). “Of 250 UCLA students who have identified themselves as
former foster youth, about 50 participate regularly in events,” said director Paolo Velasco
(Velasco, as cited in Casey, 2011). Program staff helps students navigate campus
bureaucracy and find resources such as housing, transportation, academic counseling,
mentoring, and financial aid.
University of California (UC) Davis is addressing the needs of former foster
youth by providing support and services through its Guardian Scholars Program.
According to the UC Davis website (2013), Guardian Scholars is a comprehensive
program committed to providing services and support for former foster youth to
maximize educational opportunities. Professional staff and peer advisors, in partnership
with a variety of on-campus units and external agencies, work to best meet their
academic and personal needs.
Program Goals include:

To provide a one-stop resource for campus services and support.
38

To provide a dedicated coaching team of staff and faculty committed to
building relationships while providing guidance and support.

To provide academic assistance that supports educational progress and that
leads to successful careers and/or postgraduate degrees.

To provide advocacy and support for financial, housing and personal matters
to improve the overall college experience.

To provide social support and leadership opportunities that encourage
participation in University and community life and that promote personal
growth (UC Davis, 2013).
California State University (CSU) Fullerton's Guardian Scholars program is
similar to that of UC Davis and touts itself on its website as being committed to
supporting ambitious, college-bound students exiting the foster care system providing a
comprehensive program that contributes to the quality and depth of the student's
university experience. CSU Fullerton’s Guardian Scholars program is promoted on its
website as a comprehensive program that supports former foster youth in their efforts to
gain a college education. Difficult situations and backgrounds have left some foster care
youth with significant hardships in their lives. Many of these young people have
overcome these challenges; their academic performance in high school has qualified them
to meet CSU, Fullerton admission standards. With the help of the Guardian Scholars
program, they can now begin to achieve their dreams. As wards of the court, these foster
care youth emancipate at age 18 and are forced to make a difficult transition to adulthood
often without traditional family support. By awarding a full scholarship, the Guardian
39
Scholars program provides the opportunity to change individual lives. Each fall semester
Fullerton’s goal is to admit ten to 15 new students into the Guardian Scholars program
with an ultimate goal of reaching fifty scholars in the program at one time (CSU,
Fullerton, 2013b).
Incoming students must have earned at least a 2.5 GPA in coursework and to
remain eligible for the program once the scholarship has been awarded, the recipient
must:

Maintain an overall 2.5 GPA or higher

Maintain enrollment in at least 12 units of course work

Maintain continuous enrollment at CSUF (unless a formal leave of absence is
granted)

Fully participate in all aspects of the program (meetings, events, mentoring,
career mapping, etc.)

Be receptive to staff monitoring academic performance and university records

Abide by all university standards for appropriate conduct and community
behavior
As stated on the website of the California Community Colleges Chancellor’s
Office [CCCCO] (2013b):
The CCCCO has recognized that there is a significant deficit regarding youth
from foster care attending higher education. Acknowledging this need, they are
sponsoring a concerted effort called the Foster Youth Success Initiative (FYSI) to
bring issues affecting these youth to the forefront and to improve the ability of
40
these youth to access postsecondary education and benefit from the support
services that are available but are often unknown to them. Through the vision of
the CCCCO, to create a statewide outreach and retention effort to better serve
current and former youth from care, the FYSI was established. (p. 1)
The Student Services division at Solano Community College (2013) operates a
Foster Youth Success Initiative (FYSI) and Youth Empowerment Strategies for Success –
Independent Living Program (YESS-ILP) designed to assist current and former foster
youth to successfully navigate the community college system while simultaneously
teaching them basic life skills.
The FYSI and YESS-ILP Program goals include providing access to college
services and resources; successful completion of attempted units; retention; completion of
college degrees and certificates; and transferring community college students to the fouryear university. Program services include assistance in completing financial aid
applications and other financial aid forms, provide academic counseling, refer and assist
youth to access campus and community-based resources, and provide experience-based
life skills workshops.
The Guardian Scholars Program at City College of San Francisco (CCSF) is
committed to helping students exiting the foster care system by providing comprehensive
support program to help them achieve an associate degree, complete a certificate
program, or transfer to a four-year institution. To qualify, students must be highly
motivated current or former foster youth up to age 25 and must have spent at least one
year in foster care. The Guardian Scholars Program at CCSF serves as a resource center,
41
providing assistance to students with their development of educational skills as well as
developing interpersonal skills to help them become self-sufficient role-models and
individuals in their community. Also provided are direct services, such as book vouchers
and transportation, assistance with college costs, and referrals to community-based
resources as needed and available.

As a result of participation in the Guardian Scholars participants will:

Successfully complete their career goals (completion of certificates or transfer
to a four-year college).

Develop short- to medium-term housing plan to support education/career
goals (if at risk of homelessness)

Develop self-advocacy skills

Know what support resources are available on campus and in the larger
community and how to access those successfully.
Private and Public Benefit of Higher Education
The report developed by the Baum and Ma (2007), Education Pays – The Benefits of
Higher Education for Individuals and Society, presented detailed evidence of the private
and public benefits of higher education. It also sheds light on the distribution of these
benefits by examining both the progress and the persistent disparities in participation in
postsecondary education. The benefits of higher education for individuals and for society
as a whole are both monetary and non-monetary. There are many societal benefits higher
levels of education bring, which correspond to lower unemployment and poverty rates.
42
So, in addition to contributing more to tax revenues than others do, adults with higher
levels of education are less likely to depend on social safety-net programs, generating
decreased demand on public budgets. When the cost to the system to care for children in
foster care is considered, as in this report, the notion of moving the trend toward
supporting more foster youth to enter college becomes even more of an incentive (Baum
& Ma, 2007).
Recognizing the Factors
Unrau (2011) revealed a model program that has made a positive difference in the
successful pathway to college for foster youth. Unrau confirmed much of the data shared
previously about foster youth in the nation.
More than 32,000 young people in the United States exit the foster care system in
a typical year by aging out to independence. Most youth leaving foster care at 18
years old do so in unplanned ways, and many either return to families that were
judged unfit by the court or live on their own. Just over half of foster youth
complete high school and fewer than 20 percent take college-prep courses in high
school. Despite available financial support for post-secondary education through
the Foster Care Independence Act of 1999, only 20 percent of college-qualified
foster youth attend college and less than 5 percent complete a degree; these rates
are far lower than the general population with 6o percent enrollment and 24
percent degree-completion rates. There are many barriers that get in the way of
foster youth's success in college. Many foster youth face practical or system
43
barriers that make it difficult to access or stay in school after aging out of foster
care. For example, a study in 2006 estimated less than one-third of youth exiting
foster care have basic resources such as a driver's license, cash, or basic
household necessities. Most foster youth do not have someone to co-sign a loan
or lease, making it difficult to secure safe housing” (Unrau, 2011, p. 17).
Model Programs
Medicaid and funds for start-up goods are available to foster youth until age 21,
but youth do not learn planning and communication skills needed to successfully navigate
the large bureaucratic system before aging out of foster care found that the main barriers
for higher education access among foster youth were a lack of financial resources, the
need to be in full-time employment, parenting responsibilities, and a lack of
transportation. Colleges and universities are starting to take notice of foster youth as an
underserved student population, and campus support programs designed to provide
financial, academic, and other supports to students who have aged out of foster care are
increasing. One such program is the Seita Scholars Program at Western Michigan
University. The program was named to honor Dr. John Seita who is an alum of Western
Michigan University as well as Michigan's foster care system. He has dedicated his life
to teaching and training future social workers about the challenges and strengths of young
people who are aging out of the foster care system, and he is an inspiration to young
people living in foster care. The program aims to create a community of scholars among
former foster youth (Unrau, 2011).
44
More than providing students with undergraduate education, the program offers
individual and system change strategies to help former foster youth transition into
adulthood through the experience of higher education. Students begin their college
journey at WMU with a fresh start because their foster care case history information is
not reviewed by program staff. Moreover, students are invited to actively give input into
programming activities and participate in program planning decisions. Colleges and
universities are starting to take notice of foster youth as an underserved student
population. Students accepted to the program are known as Seita Scholars; they receive a
tuition scholarship that, when combined with financial aid and other state funds for foster
youth, makes it possible for them to attend college with minimal to no student loans. A
coaching model is used as the main approach to student support. Seita Scholars are
assigned a Campus Coach, a masters-level professional with foster care experience who
helps students navigate campus and tackle the challenges of higher education (Unrau,
2011).
Campus Coaches communicate with students via texting, email, phone, and faceto-face meetings. They offer personalized support to fill gaps and bolster strengths for
each student. Campus coaches are accessible 24 hours per day via on-call support, and
students are taught how to use after-hour support for emergencies and to schedule
appointments for non-emergencies. A Department of Human Service (DHS) Coach is
also on staff at the university to help students with matters of foster care, Medicaid,
Community Mental Health, and other public support services such as food stamps and
daycare. Campus and DHS coaches are all trained to support students across seven
45
lifespan developmental domains that have been identified as important 6o percent
enrollment and 24 percent degree-completion rates. There are many barriers that get in
the way of foster youth's success in college. Many foster youth face practical or system
barriers that make it difficult to access or stay in school after aging out of foster care. For
example, a study conducted in 2006 estimated less than one-third of youth exiting foster
care have basic resources such as a driver's license, cash, or basic household necessities.
Most foster youth do not have someone to co-sign a loan or lease, making it difficult to
secure safe housing.
Medicaid and funds for start-up goods are available to foster youth until age 21,
but youth do not learn planning and communication skills needed to successfully navigate
the large bureaucratic system before aging out of foster care found that the main barriers
for higher education access among foster youth were a lack of financial resources, the
need to be in full-time employment, parenting responsibilities, and a lack of
transportation (Unrau, 2011).
Mentoring and Positive Adult Role Models
There is a great deal of literature that addresses a foster youth’s need for financial
aid, test-taking skills development, and resources needed to fulfill basic living needs.
However, there is less information about the impact a mentor has on the life of a foster
youth who is considering higher education. The publication by Casey Family Programs
(2006), It's my life: Postsecondary education and training, provides resources on where
youth can find mentors, such as:
46

The youth’s caregiver.

Natural mentors—adults with whom the youth already has a connection, such
as a teacher, tutor, coach, or youth leader.

An education advocate within the child welfare system. (For example, some
states have education advocates for secondary students and some have
Independent Living (IL) programs with adolescent outreach workers whose
jobs include education advocacy.)

The youth’s caseworker or IL coordinator.

A mentor from a community or school mentoring program.

The youth’s court-appointed special advocate (CASA), if the youth has one.
Some CASA programs provide education advocacy training for their CASAs (Casey,
2006). In addition, a 1989 study, conducted by President Bush’s Points of Light
Foundation, reported that mentoring was identified as the best way to help youth who
faced multiple risk factors. Without intervention, within two years of emancipating from
foster care, over half of the youth aged 18-20 will be homeless, victimized, incarcerated,
or dead (Points of Light Foundation, 2013).
Independent Living Programs
According to Naccarato and DeLorenzo (2008), the federally funded Independent
Living Program (ILP) was enacted to assist foster youth in the United States to make the
transition from foster care to independent living. In order to increase ILP financial
entitlements and housing resources, while decreasing the age of eligibility 14 years, a
47
subsequent Foster Care Independence Act of 1999 was passed. ILP was designed to
enable foster youth to transition to adulthood and focuses on the life skills needed for
basic living. Despite the array of policy tools to promote transitional support to foster
youth, little is known about the effectiveness of ILPs.
A review of 19 studies on ILPs revealed high rates of housing instability with a
recommendation that social service agencies should pursue state funding for the
development of transitional living programs to subsidize rent and provide for ongoing
counseling and assistance by ILP staff. Foster youth should be encouraged to develop
and maintain long-term relationships with foster parents and other supportive adults so
that they have a place to live during difficult times. The study also revealed questions
and recommendations in the area of education. Social workers should observe whether
teachers expect lower achievement from foster youth. Social services agencies should
increase attention to homework and school by training foster parents to monitor the
youth’s daily school performance and work with foster families to ensure the child’s
school year is not disrupted by another move midstream (Naccarato & DeLorenzo, 2008).
Meeting Unmet Needs
Postsecondary education remains unattainable for many foster care alumni. This
can be attributed to many factors including inadequate academic preparation, and a lack
of financial, housing and supportive services available to college students from foster
care. This exploratory study gathers qualitative data from twelve college programs
nationwide that provide scholarship and supportive services to foster care alumni
48
attending postsecondary education. Findings illustrate six major themes of youth's unmet
needs: academic preparation; housing; financial assistance; the need for emergency
assistance; youth's personal challenges; and, the need for advocacy. Program
coordinators state the importance of accessibility, advocacy, academic supports in the
form of tutoring and mentoring; assistance in finding housing; scholarships; emergency
financial assistance; access to health and mental health providers; and, outreach programs
to college bound foster youth. Recommendations explore furthering tuition waiver
programs and supportive services that address the emotional, financial and housing needs
of foster care alumni attending college (Hernandeza & Naccarato, 2010).
Redd, Brooks and McGarvey (2002) studied programs that have been found to be
successful in enhancing teens’ educational success as part of the Child Research Brief,
and found that high-quality early childhood programs, mentoring programs, and
programs aimed at boosting academic outcomes can positively influence a number of
factors related to teens’ social and psychological adjustment to school, as well as their
achievement in school, and their likelihood of completing high school and pursuing
higher education. It was also found that youth development programs can increase teens’
academic achievement in secondary school and their likelihood of going on to college,
but the effectiveness of these programs varies (Redd et al., 2002).
Families can play a strong role in how adolescents adjust to school, with parental
involvement a highly consistent predictor of teens’ success in school. Adolescents whose
parents are more involved with their schooling are more likely to be motivated to achieve
in school, to be engaged in school, and have higher educational expectations. Teens
49
whose parents are more involved in their schooling also do better academically and go on
to higher levels of education than their peers whose parents are not involved (Redd et al.,
2002).
Redd et al. (2002) explained that youth in transition from out-of-home care to
adulthood are a vulnerable sub-population of the foster care system. In addition to the
trauma of maltreatment, and challenges associated with out-of-home care, these youth
face the premature and abrupt responsibility of self-sufficiency as they leave care for
independent living. The purpose of this study was to identify personal and interpersonal
factors that contribute to resilience of young adults who left out-of-home care of a large
urban child welfare system during a one-year period. Sixty percent of the eligible young
adults participated in a computer-assisted self-administered interview about their selfsufficiency including: educational attainment, employment, housing, parenthood, health
risk behavior, criminal activity, and perceived levels of social support, spiritual support,
community support, and global life stress. This study explored the relationship between
support systems, life stress, and the young adults' resilience reflecting key outcomes. The
study's findings indicated that females, older youth, and youth with lower perceived life
stress had higher resilience scores.
Very little evidence is available to explain what factors may contribute to positive
outcomes as most studies focused on transitioning youth have described the vulnerability
of youth to poor outcomes. A few studies have asked youth to report on services that
may assist them with successful transitions. For example, former foster youth in one
study identified areas in which they need help most such as financial management and
50
housing found that life skills training related to money management, education, and
employment improved outcomes. In addition, a continuum of services is needed from the
stage of preparation for independent living, to the period of transition out of care, and
then to the period of aftercare. A comprehensive review of studies of the effectiveness of
independent living programs suggests these programs may improve outcomes in the areas
of education, employment, and housing including concrete resources leading to better
educational and employment outcomes of transitioning youth in adulthood (Daining &
DePanfilis, 2007).
Although studies indicated that youth in foster care have college aspirations,
numerous studies have found lower college enrollment rates and lower college
completion rates among young people who have been in foster care than among
other young adults. Research suggested that enrollment in college is more likely
when young people are allowed to remain in care until age 21 or are receiving
mentoring services. Research indicated that graduation from college is more
likely when young people have had fewer foster care placement moves. A few
studies have examined the relationship between postsecondary educational
attainment and race/ethnicity among young people who had been in foster care
and the findings have been mixed. Studies have found that financial difficulties,
needing to work and concerns about housing are among the barriers that prevent
former foster youth from pursuing postsecondary education. (Casey, 2011, p. 25)
Overcoming these barriers is important because increasing postsecondary
educational attainment among youth in foster care would increase their average work-life
51
earnings. With a four-year degree, youth in foster care could expect to earn
approximately $481,000 more on average over the course of their work-life than if they
had only a high school diploma. Even if they did not graduate with a degree, completing
any college would increase their work-life earnings, on average, by $129,000 (Casey,
2011).
The February 2009 Youth Mentoring Policy Brief stated,
Young people who lack a strong relationship with a caring adult while growing up
are much more vulnerable to a host of difficulties, ranging from academic failure
to involvement in serious at-risk behaviors. Resilient youth—those who
successfully transition from risk-filled backgrounds to the adult world of work
and good citizenship—are consistently distinguished by the presence of a caring
adult in their lives. (as cited in Cavell, DuBois, Karcher, Keller & Rhodes, 2009,
p. 1).
The overall record of success for youth mentoring programs is encouraging but
uneven. Recommended next steps include: 1) measured expansion of programs with
strong evidence of effectiveness; 2) Careful evaluation of newer, innovative approaches
that may increase both the reach and the impact of services; Federal leadership in the
areas of quality assurance, evaluation, and support for mentor recruitment and retention.
Mentoring the next generation of youth is critical to the future health and prosperity of
the nation. Yet, millions of young people are currently growing up without the guidance
and support from parents or others that is needed to prepare them to become welladjusted and contributing members of society. Making progress in addressing this need
52
will require substantial commitments of time and resources at all levels—from
individuals to communities to government. These investments must be made carefully
and strategically (Cavell et al., 2009).
Whenever educators are asked to identify the major problems they face, behavior
management is near the top of the list. In the article, The Relationship Factor: Making or
Breaking Successful Transitions for Youth At Risk, Powell and Marshall (2011)
highlighted research that showed effective teachers are able to build relationships with
students and implement well-developed classroom procedures. Yet, schools give scant
attention to developing the competence of teachers to connect with students at risk.
Instead, many still cling to a discredited philosophy of zero tolerance where “holding
students responsible for their actions” (p. 2) means punitive consequences and removal of
disruptive individuals. This narrow focus on accountability and liability backfires, since
connection to school and teachers is a powerful predictor of success in school and life
(Powell & Marshall, 2011).
Positive relationships have particular impact on the academic success of students
of low socioeconomic status and those with Hispanic and African American
backgrounds. A longitudinal study showed that relationship problems between African
American boys and their kindergarten teacher forecasted behavior problems that occurred
during junior high school. The study showed that transition planning for these students
was less than ideal. Complicating factors were complex interagency systems, frequency
of transitions, and the limited view of what students in transition really need. Given the
many responsibilities shouldered by administrators, their limited commitment to
53
transitions was understandable. But the apparent lack of interest in a broader view of
transition was problematic. With a greater appreciation for the constructive use of
relationship, these programs could have been more successful in supporting the youth
with transition plans. Moreover, the young people would have been more motivated to
meet their transition goals (Powell & Marshall, 2011).
Punitive consequences mean little to this population. While it was necessary to
set limits at times, students must know that adults be real with them, looking out for their
best interests. Significantly, transition coordinators often took a role of advocating for
their students. As one coordinator said,
“I think it helps for them to know that there is someone they can talk to who's not
going to judge them, who's on their side. Almost like an advocate. I think they
know me well enough now to where they know I'm going to be fair and I'm going
to do what I think is best. (Powell & Marshall, 2011, p. 3)
Having positive relationships is especially important for students returning to their home
schools because they need all the support they can get during this challenging transition.
In fact, the only time the interviewees mentioned a negative relationship was when
describing the harsh realities of students' return to their regular schools. Often, the
relationships between returning students and school staff start off on the wrong foot.
Situations were bad when students left and, to the adults, nothing has changed. This was
particularly problematic with many teachers and staff at the home school who operate
with a policing mentality rather than in support mode.
54
In the article, Poverty and the (Broken) Promise of Higher Education, it is argued
that educators committed to fostering social and economic equity through education must
challenge themselves to understand how crucial postsecondary education is to lowincome students, to recognize that this student population is increasingly “at risk,” and to
work against legislation that at best discourages, and at worst prohibits, these students
from entering into and successfully completing postsecondary degree programs. The
author demonstrates that low-income students experience dramatic and enduring benefits
from completing college degrees, but that the opportunity and support required to do so is
increasingly limited. Steps must be taken toward ensuring that education remains a truly
democratic project that has the potential for enacting social change and fostering
economic equity (Adair, 2009).
The article, Pathways to College for Former Foster Youth: Understanding
Factors That Contribute to Educational Success, Merdinger, Hines, Lemon-Osterling and
Wyatt (2005) presented early descriptive findings from the Pathways to College study, a
multi-method and multiphase study of emancipated foster youth. Results based on a
sample of 216 emancipated foster youth attending a four-year university indicate that
many of their experiences are characteristic of individuals manifesting resilience in the
face of adversity. At the same time, results indicate that although the youth are
successful academically, they may be vulnerable in other areas. This article examined
the participants' responses, comparing them to other studies to understand the factors that
affect the academic performance of former foster youth.
55
High school graduation and advancement to a four-year college or university are
two marks of successful achievement following emancipation from the foster care
system. Although more research efforts are being aimed at tracking youth leaving the
foster care system, little is known about those who are currently enrolled in
postsecondary education. Research on youth exiting the foster care system tends to
highlight negative outcomes of out-of-home care, including homelessness, dependence
on public assistance, substance abuse, increased psychological distress, and lack of
educational achievement. Little literature examines former foster youth who go on to
lead healthy and productive lives and the contributing factors that enabled them to
succeed. Understanding the factors related to the educational achievement of former
foster youth can help inform program and service delivery, both to those still in the foster
care system and those who have left (Merdinger et al., 2005).
This article presented early descriptive findings from the Pathways to College
study, a multi-method and multiphase study of emancipated foster youth attending
college. The results help paint a portrait of 216 youth who have left the foster care
system and achieved educational success by planning for and enrolling in college. For all
young adults, postsecondary education never has been more important than in the present
era. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimated that the number of college level jobs will
grow faster than the number of jobs for people with less than college education during the
years of 1998-2008 (United States Department of Education, 2011).
In addition to the increased likelihood of employment, college graduates also earn
more money than non-college graduates. In 1999, 25-34 year-old college graduates
56
earned $15,000 more yearly than high school graduates ($40,000 v. $25,122), and
$22,000 more than high school dropouts ($40,000 v. $18,000) (US Department of
Education, 2011).
The generally poor educational outcomes found among former foster youth likely
are caused by numerous factors and stressors often associated with growing up in out-ofhome care and transitioning to young adulthood. These factors and stressors include
maltreatment, placement in restrictive settings, multiple placements and associated
changes in schools attended, inconsistent social support, low educational expectations
from caregivers and the tracking of youth into vocational rather than college education,
poor quality of some group home education and “on-site” schools, and lack of access to
educational assistance or college preparation classes and advising. This article provided
a first glimpse at characteristics of emancipated foster youth attending college and factors
that contribute to their educational success. The results indicated many of the
experiences of these youth—including stable school attendance, a challenging high
school curriculum, an abundance of social support, and participation in pro-social
organizations and groups—are characteristic of individuals who manifest resilience in the
face of adversity. At the same time, results indicate that while youth are successful
academically, they may be vulnerable in other areas. The reported presence of financial
difficulties and possible psychological distress coupled with an inability to access health
insurance and services are a concern and merit further examination. The study described
in this article is the first to focus on former foster youth attending a four-year college or
university.
57
Using data from the Pathways to College study, work is currently under way
that will expand on results presented here by including group comparisons between
former foster youth not enrolled in college and low-income students attending college,
qualitative analysis of in-depth interviews with former foster youth in college, and
investigations into the types of county-level educational supports and services available
to emancipating foster youth. Understanding factors related to the educational success of
former foster youth is a critical step in efforts to improve program and service delivery to
all youth whose lives have been affected by childhood maltreatment and its
accompanying stressors (Merdinger et al., 2005).
In the article, Building Evidence to Promote Educational Competence of Youth in
Foster Care, Hyucksun Shin (2003) covered the academic difficulties of students living
in foster care. And while much is well documented, few studies have examined factors
influencing academic achievement of youth in foster care. This article reported the
results of a study of educational competence in a sample of 152 foster youth in one
Midwestern state. Using five standardized instruments, the study explored predictors of
reading ability of youth in foster care. Multiple regression analyses indicated that four
factors—aspiration for higher education, placement in kinship care, participation in
extracurricular activities, and drug use—accounted for 39% of the variance in reading
ability scores. The article discussed implications of these findings for practice, research,
and policy development. This study examined the predictors of academic achievement of
foster youth who are preparing for independence. The literature review suggested using
two major domains in examining variables influencing school success of adolescents in
58
out-of-home care: the individual characteristics of older youth in foster care and the roles
of placement characteristics in understanding their educational outcomes.
The literature review revealed that studies of educational outcomes of youth in
foster care fall into three areas: descriptions of educational performance while in care,
educational attainment at the time of discharge, and educational achievements of young
adults who were in out-of-home care. Many youth in foster care are at risk of school
failure on the basis of special education needs and early experiences of abuse and neglect.
Youth in care are less likely to perform at or above grade level than their peers in the
general population. Moreover, a large number of youth in foster care have a significant
disability and need more special education services than non-foster youth. Although
most people agree that educational attainment and employment are critical factors in
improving the chances of youth to successfully transition from foster care to
independence, many foster youth leave care without high school or general equivalency
diplomas. It was found that approximately 55% of sample youth failed to complete high
school at the time of discharge. Only 32% of youth left care with a high school diploma
or GED (Hyucksun Shin, 2003).
Youth in foster care are less likely to be placed in college preparatory classes than
their non-foster counterparts with the same aptitude. Although grades of youth in foster
care were not significantly different from grades of non-foster youth, foster youth are less
likely to be enrolled in college preparatory classes. After matching two groups according
to their scores on standardized verbal and math tests, the results indicated that only 15%
of the foster youth were placed in college preparatory classes, compared with 327% of
59
the non-foster group. The author designed this study to better understand the factors
associated with the educational achievement of older youth in foster care. Employing a
survey design, this study used individual and environmental characteristics to explore
factors that predict the reading ability of older youth in foster care. Individual
characteristics included aspiration for higher education, problem-solving skills, mental
health, and antisocial behaviors, and environmental characteristics consisted of birth
family information, age when entering care, placement in kinship care, placement in an
independent-living program, school experience, mental health services, and employment.
This study found that youth in foster care were influenced by many of the same factors
that influence educational attainment of youth in the general population, including
educational aspiration, involvement with extracurricular activities, and drug abuse.
Placement in kinship care is the only factor in the placement experience domain that
predicted educational attainment of youth in foster care. These findings raise important
questions about the assumptions embedded in practice, research, and policy with this
population (Hyucksun Shin, 2003).
As with youth not in foster care, educational aspiration was one of the most
significant predictors of educational attainment for youth in out-of-home care. Although
it is not possible from the results of this study to determine if educational aspirations are a
cause or a consequence of reading proficiency, the association between student's
academic achievement and educational aspiration has strong support in the literature.
The literature suggested that ethnicity, family achievement, parents, and school
60
environment play major roles in formulating expectations youth have for their
educational careers.
Summary and Study Rationale
The importance of this study cannot be underrated. As was stated previously, every
year nearly 30,000 foster youth emancipate from foster care in the United States. These
youth face a number of challenges, including completing high school, coping with mental
illness and substance abuse, attaining health insurance, finding employment and earning a
living wage, and securing stable housing (Mares, 2010). On average, only seven to 13%
of foster youth enroll in higher education and only two percent of former foster children
earn a college degree in the nation (AZ Hope, 2012).
More fully understanding the tipping point that motivates and inspires current and
former foster youth to enter, and ultimately, succeed in a community college can serve as
a guide for college faculty, high school administrators and student services professionals
in developing programs that support foster youth in their academic success. Through this
literature review, interviews with college-going foster youth, and conversations with
faculty in charge of special programs for foster youth much will be learned about what
works and what does not work. There are model programs that are wildly successfully,
and uncovering those and sharing them with others can cause a ripple effect that can
“move the needle” on foster youth college graduation rates.
61
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
In an effort to learn more about specific programs that exist to support foster
youth within the college environment, a 23-question, mixed method survey was
administered to college students enrolled in a college support program designed
especially for foster youth. The goal of the survey was to obtain firsthand information
about the students’ opinion of the program, understand other resources utilized by these
students and how they rate them, learn more about their academic goals and what
inspired them to enroll in college, and gain a better understanding of their current support
systems. The specific areas being studied are:
1.
What are the precursors to and special needs for college entry for
former foster youth?
2.
What is the response of educational experts and higher education
institutions to the needs of students who are former foster youth?
3.
What are the recognizable factors that move a foster youth toward
and through college?
Population and Sample
The survey was administered to 19 of the 25 students, ages 18 to 24 years, who
are participants in Community College’s Foster Youth Success Initiative (FYSI) and
62
Youth Empowerment Strategies for Success – Independent Living Program (YESS-ILP).
This program, in partnership with the County Office of Education, is designed to assist
current and former foster youth to successfully navigate the community college system
while simultaneously teaching them basic life skills. The FYSI and YESS-ILP Program
goals include providing access to college services and resources; successful completion
of attempted units; retention; completion of college degrees and certificates; and
transferring community college students to the four-year university. Program services
include assistance in completing financial aid applications and other financial aid forms,
provide academic counseling, refer and assist youth to access campus and communitybased resources, and provide experience-based life skills workshops (Solano Community
College, 2013). Of the 25 participants in the program who were offered the survey to
complete, 19 students actually answered the questions and submitted them as instructed.
This resulted in a 76% response rate and a majority of the students in the program.
Setting of the Study
The College is located in northern California, a suburban area located
approximately 50 miles west of Sacramento. Established in 1945 the college was part of
the local unified school district until 1967 when the College became a countywide
institution. The 192-acre campus, centrally located just off a major interstate, was
completed in 1971 and opened with 5,000 students. Since then, facilities, programs, staff
and services have expanded to meet the growing needs of a growing county serving
11,000 students today.
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The College is part of California's public community college system of 112
campuses in 72 districts across the state. The college's service area encompasses the
communities comprised of several northern California cities situated between Sacramento
and the Bay Area. Many graduates of the area's fifteen public high schools and three
private schools take advantage of the educational opportunities offered by the
Community College.
Research Design
Using the text, Understanding and Conducting Research in Education as a guide,
a comprehensive sampling of students was used (Cowan, 2007). This sampling was
chosen due to the majority of the population of students in the program being selected.
The online, qualitative and quantitative questionnaire was used to assess relationships
between the foster youth in the program and how they rate the programs and services
they receive. This allows the researcher to measure opinions and attitudes and to assess
any number of variables that may exist within this small population (Cowan, 2007).
Working closely with the staff at the Community College’s FYSI and YESS-ILP
Program, a written survey was developed with the original intent to be administered
online. However, through guidance from the college staff, it was determined that the
most optimal return rate for this group would be allotting time during their program
sessions to have the students complete it in written form. Face-to-face interviews were
discouraged in an effort to obtain the most candid responses.
The 23-question survey was designed to solicit demographic information and
64
insight about the students’ experience with the FYSI and YESS-ILP Program along with
their educational backgrounds and pursuits (Appendix A). Questions were also posed to
understand the types of support services the students found most useful as a foster youth
in the college environment.
Within the survey were several multiple-choice questions, Likert-scale ratings,
and open-ended questions. This mixed-method approach was chosen to create an easier
experience for the students to complete the survey through multiple-choice selections and
to also allow them the opportunity to elaborate on their views through the open-ended
options.
An information letter was developed (Appendix B) to accompany the survey,
which comprised a message from the researcher to the students. Because the researcher
did not work directly with the students, but rather the program coordinators administered
the survey, this letter served as a way to express gratitude for their time, encourage
candid responses, confirm the confidentiality and voluntary nature of the survey, and
explain the nature and purpose of the study. The confidentially of the process was
described in the “Information and Consent Letter” (Appendix B) in the section addressing
confidentiality and the researcher’s commitment to keeping all information anonymous,
including the use of emails and student names. The program coordinator was asked to
share the results of the study with the student participants as she deemed appropriate.
The participants were informed of the nature of the study in two ways. First, a
brief, introductory paragraph was included in the questionnaire (Appendix A) that read:
The purpose of this survey is to gain a greater understanding of what inspires
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and motivates current and former foster youth to enter, and ultimately, succeed
in a community college. Your participation in this study is completely
voluntary and confidential and will guide college faculty, high school
administrators, and student services professionals in developing programs and
services that support foster youth in their academic success. Thank you for your
time and candid responses to this questionnaire.
Second, the participants learned about the nature of the study in the
Information and Consent Letter, which described the overall purpose of the research.
Data Collection Procedures
The researcher worked directly with the FYSI and YESS-ILP Program
Coordinator to administer the questionnaire. The Program Coordinator provided copies
of the survey to the students over the course of three FYSI and YESS-ILP Program
sessions in December 2012 and January 2013. The students were provided a quiet,
private area in which to complete the survey, and a confidential receptacle was available
for them to place the completed forms. The Program Coordinator returned the completed
surveys to the researcher by mail, and the researcher confirmed receipt of the surveys
with the Program Coordinator.
Instrumentation
Of the 23 survey questions, 15 were multiple choice, five were Likert-scale, and
three were open ended. Four of the questions were demographic in nature. The multiple-
66
choice questions typically ranged from three to five options, however there were two
questions that offered up to ten options. Likert-scale questions were typically scaled by:

Very well

Somewhat well

Somewhat poor

Very poor

Not applicable
Other options provided, depending on the nature of the question included:

Very important

Somewhat important

Neutral

Somewhat not important

Not at all important

Not applicable
The open-ended questions were presented in order to not solicit closed-ended
responses, such as “yes” or “no.” For example, one question asked: “What inspired you
to go to college?” Another question posed: “Please describe what is helpful or not helpful
about the program at your college,” and another asked for additional comments.
Data Analysis Procedures
Once the completed surveys were received, the results were transcribed manually
by the researcher. The data was entered into a spreadsheet to allow for the development
67
of graphs and charts to provide visuals to support the results. With the baseline audience
assumption that those taking the survey were foster youth enrolled in a program
specifically designed to support them in their educational pursuits, rather than the general
population of college-age foster youth, the researcher analyzed the data through this lens.
Through data analysis using simple frequency distributions and percentage and
proportion methodologies, there was special attention given to the level of support
services the student use and their opinion of the value each service has on their
educational success. Of additional interest was the support system each student has and
what they found to be most important to them in order of importance, along with the
overall ranking of the FYSI and YESS-ILP Program. Finally, the researcher’s general
hypothesis, based on the literature review, was that mentoring would rank high among
the support systems attributed to their higher education success. The data was closely
examined to determine if a correlation existed between college success and the frequency
of a mentor in high school and in their lives currently.
Limitations of the Study
One of the limitations of the study was not conducting a separate study of foster
youth enrolled in college but not part of a specialized program for this particular
audience. By asking similar questions of the non-program enrolled foster youth, the
researcher believes information from this group of students would have yielded broader
results and provided the opportunity to compare and contrast the data. In addition,
determining if non-college based support systems had any impact on the general
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population of college-going foster youth would have provided greater context in which to
compare the two populations.
Another limitation of the study was the researcher’s unintended omission of a
question to uncover the students’ definition of higher education success. While the
question: “What is your goal as a college student?” was asked and could define the
participants’ view of success, a more direct question would have eliminated the
speculation.
Finally, additional questions specifically addressing the role a mentor plays in the
life and success of a foster youth in college would have given the researcher more
information to consider. The ability to validate or invalidate the hypothesis that a mentor
plays the most significant role in the success of a foster youth college student would have
been more highly developed through additional questions in this area.
The overall findings from this survey, combined with the literature review
described in the previous chapter, offer a thorough examination of the role education
plays in a foster youth’s life, the current support systems that exist, and the challenges
facing foster youth to enter the higher education realm. As a result of reviewing the
literature, a focused study is needed to determine if there are one or more prevalent
tipping points that move a foster youth into and through college and toward a higher
education degree or certificate.
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Chapter 4
DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
Introduction
The purpose of the study was to obtain firsthand information about the
Community College’s Foster Youth Success Initiative (FYSI) and Youth Empowerment
Strategies for Success – Independent Living Program (YESS-ILP) through the students’
opinion of the program at a particular college. Ultimately, the goal was to become aware
of other resources utilized by these students to support them through college and how
they rate them, learn more about their academic goals and what inspired them to enroll in
college, and gain a better understanding of their current support systems.
As mentioned earlier, the specific questions being studied in this research are
1.
What are the precursors to and special needs for college entry for
former foster youth?
2.
What is the response of educational experts and higher education
institutions to the needs of students who are former foster youth?
3.
What are the recognizable factors that move a foster youth toward and
through college?
The research findings will be presented in two sections, the first relating to the
findings from the student survey and the second discussing the results of the narrative
comments from the open-ended questions. The results of the data are presented according
to the role each plays in addressing a specific research question.
70
Presentation of the Data
Demographic Information
A limited number of demographic questions were posed to gain an understanding
of the general description of the 18 students who completed the survey. While not
associated with any specific research question, information such as the age, gender,
ethnicity, and employment status of the participants is included to set the foundation for a
basic understanding of the type of students being studied and gives a general sense of this
fairly small sample of students.
Participants’ Demographic Data Aggregated
Figure 1
Age
Ethnicity
Gender
Employment
Status
72%: 18 – 20 years
28%: 21 – 24 years
55.6%: African
American
22%: Caucasian
16.7%: Hispanic
5.6%: Samoan
13: Females
10: Unemployed
5: Males
8: Employed
The figure above shows that 72% of the students identify themselves as 18 to 20
years old and 28% of them identify themselves as 21 to 24 years old at the time of the
survey completion date in December 2012 and January 2013. This information
demonstrates that there are no outlying age groups in this population sample. As
compared with the national average age of community college students at 29 years of
age, the students in the program are younger than community college students overall
(American Association of Community Colleges [AAACC], 2013).
The breakdown of ethnicity among the students in the program is as follows:
71

22% - Caucasian

55.6% - African American

5.6% - Samoan

16.7% - Hispanic
The AACCC (2013) stated on its website that the majority of black (African
American) and Hispanic undergraduate students in this country study at community
colleges. The participants of this study reflect this national statistic with the African
American students in the program, but the Hispanic population does not represent a
majority of the study participants.
There are five male and 13 female study participants. According to the AAACC
(2013), more than half of all community college students are women. The female
students in this program represent 72% of the population being studied and support the
AAACC’s statistics of “more than half.”
Of the 18 students surveyed, eight are employed and 10 are not employed.
Nationally, 24 percent of community college students are not employed, and 76 percent
are employed. In the case of the participants of this study, 56 percent are not employed
and 44 percent are employed. Of all of the demographic questions posed, the responses
to this particular question have prompted the researcher to consider if there are
underlying reasons for this. Do the students in this program receive a greater amount of
financial aid due to the support and guidance they receive to maximize the financial aid
available? Has this reduced their need for employment?
72
Categorized under the research question: “What are the precursors to and special
needs for college entry for former foster youth?” the following questions were posed.
The related results are noted within each particular question and analyzed overall at the
end of the section.
One hundred percent of all participants graduated from high school (therefore, no
graph is provided). This is important to note as it relates to having baseline information
about whether or not high school preparation for college was an option. It is also
interesting to note that, given the national high school graduation rate of 70.5% (Higher
Education Policymaking and Analysis, 2013) this community college student population
of former foster youth has greatly surpassed the norm.
Figure 2
Age Upon Graduating from High School
Age When Graduated from High School
Age Range
18 years +
16-17 years old
0
2
4
6
8
10
Years
12
14
16
18
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A majority of the students graduated on par with the standard age of all high
school students at age 18 (United States Census Bureau, 2013).
Figure 3
Location of High School
Location of High School
Within Solano
Outside of Solano
To gain an understanding about the level of support leading into the students’
college experience, it is interesting to note where the students’ originating high schools
are located. This may help in determining if there is a correlation between the local tie
with the high schools and the college and the level of college preparation offered to the
students. In this case, 12 of the students attended high school in the same vicinity as
Solano Community College, and six attended high school outside of the area.
74
Figure 4
Public or Private High School
Public or Private High School
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Public
Private
The original assumption by the researcher was that a majority of the students went
to a public high school, and this graph proves that point. Sixteen of the 18 students
attended a public high school. If a majority of students had attended a private high
school, it may have explained the high graduation rate. However, their public high
school attendance assumes that special support systems were in place for these foster
youth that may have led them to graduate and apply for college.
75
Figure 5
Support Services While in High School
How would you rank the support services you used while in high school?
10
9
8
7
6
Tutoring
5
Mentoring
Academic Counseling
4
Emancipation Services
3
2
1
0
Very Well
Somewhat well
Somewhat poor
Very Poor
N/A
There were several services used by the students while in high school to support
them through to graduation. Of these, academic counseling ranked high along with
mentoring as the most valuable services they used during their high school year. This
may serve as an indicator of their expectations for college and the services they have used
or found valuable in the higher education realm.
76
Figure 6
High School Preparation for College
How well did high school prepare for college?
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Very well
Somewhat well
Average
Somewhat poor
Very poor
Despite the number of programs and services many of the students indicated they
used during high school, a majority of the students rated their high school as average in
college preparation. Further exploration of this topic would ask additional questions to
find out why they rated their high schools at this level. Furthermore, there appears to be
a correlation between the students’ high graduation rates and their entry into college with
support systems they received in high school.
A correlation can be made with the above data that the precursor to these
students’ entry into college is directly related to the services they received in high school
that supported them toward graduation and entering college. This data, coupled with the
literature review, suggests that the role of high school support systems greatly improves
the chances of educational success. Academic counseling and tutoring ranked high
among the services the students used, and despite the average overall rating the students
77
gave their respective high schools, the impact of the role of the high school experience on
students is noteworthy.
Categorized under the research question: “What is the response of educational
experts and higher education institutions to the needs of students who are former foster
youth?” the following questions were posed. The related results are noted within each
particular question and analyzed overall at the end of the section.
Figure 7
Most Used Programs and Services in College
Most used programs at college
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
BOG fee
waiver
Schol arships
Academi c
counseli ng
CHAFEE grant
Fed Fi nanci al
Aid
Cal Grant
Housi ng
programs
Section 8
fundi ng
CalWorks
Noted among the most commonly used programs and services at the college was
federal financial aid followed by academic counseling and the BOG (Board of
Governors) Fee Waiver. This demonstrated the high value students place on financial
support along with guidance through the academic maze.
78
Figure 8
Participation in Foster Youth Program at College
Participation in College program for Foster Youth
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Yes
No
Although this question had an assumed 100% “yes” answer due to the
presumption that all students being surveyed were part of the FYSI/YESS foster youth
program at the college, one student answered “no.” There is no explanation for this
response, and further exploration would include an interview with the program
coordinator to determine why.
79
Figure 9
Overall Ranking of College Program for Foster Youth
Foster Youth College Program Ranking
Poor
Left vertical axis title
Not Good
Neutral
Series1
Good
Excellent
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Horizontal axis title
All but one student ranked their foster youth program as “excellent” or “good.”
This clearly demonstrates the value the students place on this program. The students
were then asked to describe what is helpful or not helpful about the foster youth program
at the Community College. The following represents the responses:

FYSI is very helpful because without it, certain things wouldn’t be easy.

Everything in my program is helpful.

It’s been very helpful because I was going through a lot and college was very
overwhelming for me until I got into the FYSI program.

The program helped me with finding scholarships and grants.

It’s helpful because they support me and all of us in our career choices and my
bus issues.

Very good guidance

Everything is helpful
80

A lot of support and guidance that help me with school

Support, encouragement, programs with mentoring, and help with majors

It’s very helpful. They have a lot of services available for foster youth.

They make us a priority and are helpful and supportive.

It makes things at college not as much of a struggle.

Everything about the program is helpful including the tips and the helpful
knowledge about the resources we have on campus.

Everything from receiving help for financial, school planning, and the
workshop
The data here suggested that the response of educational experts and higher
education institutions to the needs of students who are former foster youth, within this
microcosm of the student population, supports the literature examined. Both the results
of this survey and the literature suggests that the combination of financial aid, mentoring,
tutoring, and academic counseling blend to provide the best recipe for foster youth
success in higher education rather than one specific offering. In addition, the results of
the survey indicated that a specialized foster youth support system within the college
setting provides not only much-needed academic and program guidance for the students
but also serves as a family-type setting that surrounds the student with moral support and
assistance.
Categorized under the research question: “What are the recognizable factors that
determine whether or not a foster youth will succeed in college?” the following questions
81
were posed. The related results are noted within each particular question and analyzed
within each section.
Figure 10
Length of Time Enrolled in a Community College
How long have you been enrolled in a community college?
10
9
8
7
6
5
Series1
4
3
2
1
0
1_2 semesters
3_4 semesters
4_5 semesters
6 or more semesters
This graph shows that a majority of the students have been enrolled in a
community college for one to two semesters, closely followed by those who have
attended college for three to four semesters. Length of time in a community college is a
potential indicator of success in that the longer a student remains in college the higher
chance that barriers to completion may exist. If a student is progressing in an
academically satisfactory manner, there is a higher likelihood of a shorter length of time
in college. According to the California Community Colleges Student Success Task Force
(2013),
Given options, students who lack guidance are likely to seek what they think will
be their most direct path through college-level courses, without understanding
what is required to be successful in the college environment and without regard to
82
their academic preparation for college-level work. Students find themselves in
courses that are unconnected to reaching an educational goal and for which they
are not prepared, at best lengthening their time to completion. (p. 12).
Figure 11
Major in College
College major
Ch emistry
Crim inal justic e
Scien ce of aviation
Left vertical axis title
So cial sc ienc e
D raftin g
H um an servic es
L iberal stud ie s
Psyc ho logy
Series1
C hild Develo pm ent
Fas hion
TV/film
Nu rs ing
C om puter sc ienc e
Bu sines s
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
H orizo ntal axis title
This question was originally included in the survey to determine if there is one
type of emphasis or another that is prevalent among foster youth in this program. The
following graphic demonstrates that there is not one prevalent program major other than a
slight increase in the number of nursing and human services students. All students in this
program have determined a major, which creates specific academic goals and sets the
stage for the student’s success.
83
Figure 12
Goal as a College Student
What is your goal as a college student?
Transfer only
Assoc. degree + transfer
Assoc. degree
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
In every case, the students have goals related to academic degrees or transfer to a
four-year university rather than a focus on obtaining a vocational certification. What was
not determined through this study was whether or not this is directly related to their
participation in the program or if it is common among a majority of the general
community college-going student population.
84
Figure 13
Most Important Support Systems
Most important support person/system
8
7
6
5
Fri ends
4
Bio Fami ly
Fost/Adopt Famil y
Classmates
3
2
1
0
Very i mportant
Somewhat
important
Neutral
Somewhat not
important
Not at al l important
Not appl icable
The students were asked who they believe to be the most important support
system in their lives now that they are in college. Friends and biological families ranked
the highest and classmates ranked among the lowest as a support system. Future
examination of this area would include mentors as an option to tie in the results from the
following question about who has a mentor in their lives. This additional assessment
would allow for a comparative analysis on the literature that states the high value a
mentor has in the life of a foster youth and higher education.
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Figure 14
Mentor in the Student’s Life
Mentor in Student's Life
Yes
No
Of the 18 students, 12 indicated they have a mentor in their lives and 6 do not
have a mentor in their lives. Upon further exploration, the value students place on having
a mentor supporting them through the college process and life in general could be
determined, as noted above. For foster youth who enter into post-secondary education,
the challenges are often insurmountable without the intervention of caring campus
professionals who serve as coaches and mentors (California College Pathways, 2011). In
addition, a 1989 study, conducted by President Bush’s Points of Light Foundation,
reported that mentoring was identified as the best way to help youth who faced multiple
risk factors. Without intervention, within two years of emancipating from foster care,
over half of the youth aged 18 to 20 will be homeless, victimized, incarcerated, or dead
(Points of Light Foundation, 2013). This supports the need for additional research to
better understand the value the students place on their mentoring experience to either
support or contradict the literature review.
86
Figure 15
Current Living Situation
Living Situation
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Living wi th parents
Living wi th friends
Living on own
Homeless
Living wi th extended famil y
To gain an understanding of the challenges the students may face with their
current living situations, students were asked to identify their current living situation. A
majority of the students live on their own, with many others living with either immediate
or extended family. The researcher’s assumption was that a higher percentage of students
would be homeless or living with family. In this case, most of the students found the
resources to live on their own.
Open-ended Questions and Answers
When asked what inspired the students to go to college, the following responses
resulted, along with additional comments made when the students were prompted with:
“If you have any additional comments you would like to share, please use the space
below.”
87
Table 1
Inspiration for College
What inspired you to go to college?
I want a better future that will help me
more in life, and I believe college will
help me with that.
Additional comments
I wouldn’t be able to continue without the
FYSI program.
I want a better life. I love school, and I
love to learn.
I love my college and my program!
My parents never went to school.
Basketball inspired me.
Just “thank you” to the FYSI program for
being so helpful and supportive
To make it in life. To get a better job and
income.
I couldn’t have stayed in community college
if it weren’t for the FYSI program.
Working at a YMCA and having people
tell me I shouldn’t go to college.
I want to have a job that will allow me to
live an upper class life.
I would like to become a preschool – 6th
grade teacher. I would love to inspire
kids.
I just want better for myself.
I inspired myself.
My family, high school teachers
The need to be self-dependent
My history, my family, and myself
I want a stable career and training to
support myself, and my family.
Sports
I want to be someone successful.
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What inspired you to go to college?
The possibilities of doing what I love
Additional comments
To be successful in the future
Findings and Interpretation of the Data
As stated earlier, the goal of this study was to uncover what the tipping point is
that moves a foster youth into and through college and toward a higher education degree
or certificate. Through this discovery process, awareness has been revealed of other
resources utilized by these students to support them through college and how they rate
these resources, along with obtaining a greater understanding about their academic goals,
what inspired them to enroll in college, and insight into their current support systems.
Measuring Effectiveness
The data collected proved to be essential in measuring the effectiveness of the
FYSI/YESS foster youth program at the Community College. The students’ responses to
the multiple choice and Likert-scale questions were insightful into the type of students
being surveyed, and the open-ended questions allowed for more candid responses about
their inspiration for attending college and how they feel about the program that was
designed with them in mind. Overall, the students responded very favorably to their
experience with the program and value it brings to their personal and academic lives.
Researcher’s Assumptions Challenged
One of the areas hypothesized by the researcher was that the value of having a
mentor in a student’s life was among the most important aspects of student success,
especially for the foster youth population. Sixty-seven percent of the college students
89
indicated they have a mentor in their lives, as compared to 67 percent of students who felt
the mentoring programs at their high schools were either “somewhat poor, very poor, or
nonexistent.” This leads to an assumption that the mentoring program at the college is
not only strong but offered as a viable resource for these students.
Mentoring, combined with a wide variety of resources the students use, including
federal financial aid, scholarships and housing funds, provide a myriad list of support
services the students find valuable. The researcher’s conclusion is that without these
resources, most, if not all, of these students would not be able to stay in college. It is not
one resource or another that can be credited to a college-going foster youth’s success in
college but a combined array of services and programs, along with the guidance and
support they receive from the FYSI/YESS program, that have kept them moving toward
college completion.
Identifying Variables
Given the overall quest to determine what the tipping point is that moves a foster
youth into and through college and toward a higher education degree or vocational
certificate, specific variables have been identified. The dependent variable is the foster
youth student’s successful progress through college and toward a degree or vocational
certificate. This variable is dependent on several factors, or independent variables, such
as: 1) Foster youth receiving the special attention and help they need to address their
special needs (i.e., basic living needs, financial aid, counseling and academic guidance);
2) Educational experts and higher education institutions addressing these needs through
developing and replicating formal, specialized programs; and 3) identifying the factors
90
that move a foster youth toward and through college in order to ensure the appropriate
programs and services are in place to meet the students’ needs directly.
Through the Lens of the Literature Review
The literature indicates that about half of the nation’s foster children complete
high school, compared with 70 percent in the general population, and that GED
completion is more likely for foster care youth (Gustavsson & MacEachron, 2012).
There are multiple explanations for why the students in this program all graduated from
high school, despite the many obstacles they may have faced during this time. It is
possible that the respective high schools had a special program for foster youth; they may
have all had supportive foster families; they may have been a foster youth for a limited
period of time and then returned to supportive biological families; and/or they may each
have a resiliency that gave them determination to graduate. Further examination on this
topic would reveal the cause and effect that led to the perfect graduation rate within this
population.
Of all services these students used while in high school, the researcher’s choice in
adding “emancipation services” as a selection may have served to confuse rather than be
considered a clear option. Emancipation services can be interpreted in several ways.
From one perspective, all programs offered to support students can be viewed as those
that fall under the category of emancipation services if they are specifically offered to
former foster youth. For others, housing, independent living programs, and programs that
support a foster youth to succeed with their lives outside of the foster care system is how
91
this category would be defined. In either case, a more clearly stated category might have
garnered different, possibly more relevant, results.
Overall, the findings from this survey proved invaluable to the study. The
information both supported and validated the literature review and revealed gaps in the
questioning process, which is discussed further in the last chapter and in the section titled
Limitations of the Study. The more time that is spent delving into the topic of foster
youth and higher education, the higher the likelihood improvements can be made to their
successful outcomes. Model programs can be replicated and foster youth can feel more
hopeful about their futures with the knowledge that support is available.
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Chapter 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The purpose of this study was to examine the role of education in a foster youth’s
life, the current support systems that exist, and the challenges facing foster youth to enter
the higher education realm. It was originally hypothesized that the tipping point moving
a foster youth into and through college and toward a higher education degree or
certificate was one or two factors, such as the student having a mentor in his or her life
and some financial resources. Through this study, the initial question: “Are there
multiple factors involved or is there one underlying impetus that encourages foster youth
to pursue a higher education?” has been explored.
It is also theorized, through the focused survey of the students in the Community
College’s FYSI/YESS program and the literature review analysis that students enrolled in
a specialized program for foster youth have higher student success and student retention.
Furthermore, higher education institutions that adopt these specialized models are far
better able to meet foster youth students’ academic, professional, and personal goals with
a higher percentage of positive student learning outcomes. At the risk of being
redundant, the specific questions being studied in this research were:
1.
What are the precursors to and special needs for college entry for
former foster youth?
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2.
What is the response of educational experts and higher education
institutions to the needs of students who are former foster youth?
3.
What are the recognizable factors that move a foster youth
toward and through college?
The researcher attempted to address the targeted research questions through the
review of the literature, conducting surveys of the students in the program, and
conducting a comparative analysis of the results from the two methods of research. In an
effort to learn more about specific programs that exist to support foster youth within the
college environment, a mixed method survey was administered to college students
enrolled in a college support program designed especially for foster youth. The goal of
the survey was to obtain firsthand information about the students’ opinion of the
program, understand other resources utilized by these students and how they rate them,
learn more about their academic goals and what inspired them to enroll in college, and
gain a better understanding of their current support systems. The data analysis and report
of findings will prove beneficial in the process of validating the overall research study
being performed by the researcher.
Conclusions
The review of literature provides ample answers and examples to the research
questions. The literature indicates there are many factors that need to be present to fully
support a foster youth in his/her academic pursuits. First, the special needs of college
students who are foster youth were examined through the first research question: What
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are the precursors to and special needs of college students who are former foster youth?”
The literature revealed that youth transitioning to adulthood need supportive adults and
access to basic housing and supportive services typically provided by birth or adoptive
parents to youth throughout their late teens and twenties (Mares, 2010). According to the
Sacramento County Children’s Coalition (2012), “Foster youth in Sacramento face more
adversity than their peers around the state. Children facing adversity can develop the
resiliency to rebound from traumatic experiences if there is one person in their life who
supports and believes in them” (p. 38). As a whole, children are resilient, despite many
challenges to their healthy development. Without continuing support from the
community, and without stable, committed relationships from adults, children are not
able to reach their full potential, and in fact, experience quite negative outcomes.
In the survey of the Community College program’s foster youth students, it was
revealed that a majority of this group has a mentor in their lives. While not directly asked
if they believe their mentor plays a significant role in their ability to reach their full
potential, the literature suggests this is a key factor in moving students, former foster
youth, out of their negative cycle and toward positive outcomes.
Events and environments experienced in childhood can have effects on
development, behavior, health, mental health, and other functional outcomes into
adulthood. This is certainly the case for people who experience child abuse and neglect.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a major diagnosis associated with early child
maltreatment. Very few studies have examined how various contextual factors related to
foster care (e.g., placement changes, type of placements, re-victimization during
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placement) affect long-term mental health outcomes. Even less well understood is
whether race/ethnicity and gender influence long-term outcomes when maltreated
children are removed from their families of origin and cared for in the context of the child
welfare system (Jackson, 2011).
The Community College’s FYSI/YESS program does not address the mental
health issues of the students in the program, but rather, refers them to professionals who
can help. There are a multitude of services and resources offered to these students in
order to remove as many barriers as possible to their academic success. While there were
no specific questions posed to the students in the survey regarding support services they
may have used in the mental health area, the literature review uncovers that this is a need
that should not be ignored.
Second, the research question asks: What is the response of educational experts
and higher education institutions to the needs of students who are former foster youth?
The response of educational experts and higher education institutions to the needs of
students, who are former foster youth, as discovered in the literature review, is extensive.
For example, in the article, Educational Policy and Foster Youth: The Risks of Change,
Gustavsson and MacEachron (2012) stated that recent child welfare legislation requires
agencies to address the educational well-being of foster youth. Schools face new
accountability standards through No Child Left Behind and the Obama Blueprint for
Reform as they move toward the goal of ensuring that all children receive a quality
education (Gustavsson & MacEachron). The involvement of legislation in addressing the
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needs of foster youth has encouraged a response from educational experts and institutions
to address the needs of this population.
As stated earlier, foster youth are vulnerable to poor educational outcomes. Child
welfare policy recognizes the educational challenges of these youth and has become more
active in trying to reduce the vulnerabilities. The most recent legislation, the Fostering
Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act of 2008, adds new requirements
for child welfare agencies to attend to the well-being needs of foster children.
College and university programs to support foster youth have grown
exponentially over the past several years. As noted in the literature review, spurring
much of the recent activity is a 2008 federal law that makes it less costly for states to
extend foster care beyond age 18. That is becoming increasingly critical because, even as
the number of children in foster care has declined, the proportion who leave care without
an adoptive family has increased, from 7.1% in 2001 to more than 11% in 2010
(Marklein, 2012).
The number of higher educational institutions offering support programs for foster
youth is continually increasing. Of the nearly 80 campuses across the nation offering
support programs for foster youth, a majority offer campus-based programs designed:

To provide a one-stop resource for campus services and support

To provide a dedicated coaching team of staff and faculty committed to
building relationships while providing guidance and support

To provide academic assistance that supports educational progress and that
leads to successful careers and/or postgraduate degrees
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
To provide advocacy and support for financial, housing and personal matters
to improve the overall college experience

To provide social support and leadership opportunities that encourage
participation in University and community life and that promote personal
growth
The third and final research question is: What are the recognizable factors that
move a foster youth toward and through college? This question provokes an examination
of what the factors are that remove the barriers and provide the support a student needs to
consider college, enter college, maintain satisfactory academic performance, and achieve
success.
As stated earlier in Chapter 2 of this thesis, the problem is not that foster youth
have less desire to pursue postsecondary education. On the contrary, research suggests
that the majority of foster youth have college aspirations. However, numerous barriers
make it difficult for foster youth to achieve their educational goals. First, the child
welfare system has traditionally done a poor job of encouraging foster youth to pursue
postsecondary education (Emerson, 2006). Many foster youth are not given opportunities
to explore their options or are not provided with information about applying to schools.
This could be because foster youth are not expected to achieve much when it comes to
education or because child welfare workers and foster parents are not trained to help them
navigate the application process.
There are many variables that impact a foster youth’s life including lack of
positive family or adult support, financial resources, housing, and direction. There are
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many barriers that get in the way of foster youth's success in college. “Many foster youth
face practical or system barriers that make it difficult to access or stay in school after
aging out of foster care. For example, a study in 2006 estimated “less than one-third of
youth exiting foster care have basic resources such as a driver's license, cash, or basic
household necessities. Most foster youth do not have someone to co-sign a loan or lease,
making it difficult to secure safe housing” (Unrau, 2011, p. 17).
There is a great deal of literature that addresses a foster youth’s need for financial
aid, test-taking skills development, and resources needed to fulfill basic living needs.
However, there is less information about the impact a mentor has on the life of a foster
youth who is considering higher education. The publication, It's my life: Postsecondary
Education and Training, provides resources on where youth can find mentors, such as:

The youth’s caregiver.

Natural mentors—adults with whom the youth already has a connection,
such as a teacher, tutor, coach, or youth leader.

An education advocate within the child welfare system.

The youth’s caseworker or IL coordinator.

A mentor from a community or school mentoring program.

The youth’s court-appointed special advocate (CASA), if the youth has
one (Casey Family Programs, 2006).
Sixty-seven percent of the Solano Community College students indicated they
have a mentor in their lives, as compared to 67% of students who felt the mentoring
programs at their high schools were either “somewhat poor, very poor, or nonexistent.”
99
This leads to an assumption that the mentoring program at the college is not only strong,
but offered as a viable resource for these students.
In summarizing the literature review, very little evidence is available to explain
what factors may contribute to positive outcomes as most studies focused on transitioning
youth have described the vulnerability of youth to poor outcomes. A few studies have
asked youth to report on services that may assist them with successful transitions. For
example, former foster youth in one study identified areas in which they need help most
such as financial management and housing found that life skills training related to money
management, education, and employment improved outcomes. In addition, a continuum
of services is needed from the stage of preparation for independent living, to the period of
transition out of care, and then to the period of aftercare. A comprehensive review of
studies of the effectiveness of independent living programs suggests these programs may
improve outcomes in the areas of education, employment, and housing including concrete
resources leading to better educational and employment outcomes of transitioning youth
in adulthood (Daining & DePanfilis, 2007).
The results of the survey conducted with the Solano Community College students
poses questions related to the types of services they find most valuable. Upon further
examination, this area could be expanded by finding out how they would rate the effect
the services have on their perceived academic success. It would also be interesting to
learn how the students would define academic success and compare it to that of the
college’s standards and meanings. With the limitations of this study, the results from the
students reflect that of the literature and educational experts’ views on what programs,
100
services, and resources remove barriers and provide support to this vulnerable student
population.
For example, noted among the most commonly used programs and services at the
college by the study of the Community College’s foster youth students was federal
financial aid followed by academic counseling and the BOG (Board of Governors) Fee
Waiver. This demonstrates the high value students place on financial support along with
guidance through the academic maze. This, combined with their high rating of the
FYSI/YESS program and what the literature review reveals overall, leads the researcher
to hypothesize that the ideal model is a type of “wrap-around” program, like the
FYSI/YESS program at Solano and others mentioned in the literature review, that
combines a support group of peers and staff to guide them toward the resources they
need. This type of program serves as a combined support system, like a family, that
interweaves the teaching of basic living skills, links to financial resources, and access to
mentors, tutors, housing, and other resources to surround the student with the kind of
support they have not received elsewhere in their lives.
Recommendations
After review of the facilitated research, recommendations for a future study
certainly exist. This research has briefly delved into the complexities of the foster youth
population and their success in the higher education realm. The researcher’s initial
hypothesis that one or two resources, like mentoring and financial aid, can serve as
adequate support to move a foster youth toward academic success, is only partially
101
correct. The findings, specifically, lead toward the need for the ideal: a more
comprehensive program and wrap-around services that tailor a plan for each student.
It would also be interesting to learn how the students would define academic
success and compare it to that of the college’s standards and meanings. With the
limitations of this study, the results from the students reflect that of the literature and
educational experts’ views on what programs, services, and resources remove barriers
and provide support to this vulnerable student population.
Expanding the research to include one-on-one interviews with program and
administrative staff at institutions like Solano Community College could identify areas
for program improvement, explain the correlation between student success and their
support program, and reveal the underpinnings of the students’ daily lives that affect their
ability to focus on their school work.
The importance of this study cannot be underrated. As was stated previously,
every year nearly 30,000 foster youth emancipate from foster care in the United States.
These youth face a number of challenges, including completing high school, coping with
mental illness and substance abuse, attaining health insurance, finding employment and
earning a living wage, and securing stable housing (Mares, 2010). On average, only 713% of foster youth enroll in higher education and only two percent of former foster
children earn a college degree in the nation (AZ Hope, 2012).
As this thesis began, so it ends with the aspiration to more fully understand the
tipping point that motivates and inspires current and former foster youth to enter, and
ultimately, succeed in a community college. Ultimately, this can serve as a guide for
102
college faculty, high school administrators and student services professionals in
developing programs that support foster youth in their academic success.
103
Appendices
104
Appendix A
Interview Questions
105
Interview Questions
106
107
108
109
110
111
Appendix B
Information and Consent Letter
112
Information and Consent Letter
Consent to Participate in Research (confidential research)
Identification of Investigators & Purpose of Study
You are being asked to participate in a research study conducted by Kerry Wood
a graduate student from California State University, Sacramento. The purpose of
this study is to gain a greater understanding of what inspires and motivates
current and former foster youth to enter, and ultimately, succeed in a community
college. The information gained from the study will guide college faculty, high
school administrators, and student services professionals in developing
programs and services that support foster youth in their academic success. This
study will contribute to Kerry’s completion of her master’s thesis.
Research Procedures
This study consists of an online survey that will be administered to individual
participants through Survey Monkey (an online survey tool). You will be asked to
provide answers to a series of questions related to foster youth and community
college resources. Should you decide to participate in this confidential research
you may access the anonymous survey by following the web link located under
the “Giving of Consent” section.
Time Required
Participation in this study will require 15 minutes of your time.
Confidentiality
The overall results of this research will be used as part of the overall master’s
thesis and will serve as the basis from which the student (Kerry Wood) will make
recommendations based on the findings. While individual responses are
anonymously obtained and recorded online through Survey Monkey data is kept
in the strictest confidence. Responding participant’s email addresses will be
tracked using Survey Monkey for follow-up notices, but names and email
addresses are not associated with individual survey responses. The researchers
will know if a participant has submitted a survey, but will not be able to identify
individual responses, therefore maintaining anonymity for the survey.
The results of this project will be coded in such a way that the respondent’s
identity will not be attached to the final form of this study. All data will be stored in
a secure location accessible only to the researcher. Upon completion of the
study, all information will be destroyed. Final results will be made available to
participants upon request.
113
Participation & Withdrawal
Your participation is entirely voluntary. You are free to choose not to participate.
Should you choose to participate, you can withdraw at any time.
Questions about the Study
If you have questions or concerns during the time of your participation in this
study, or after its completion or you would like to receive a copy of the final
aggregate results of this study, please contact:
Researcher’s Name:
Kerry Wood
CSU, Sacramento
Giving of Consent
I have read this consent form and I understand what is being requested of me as
a participant in this study. I freely consent to participate. The investigator
provided me with a copy of this form through email. I certify that I am at least 18
years of age. By clicking on the link below (link to follow), and completing and
submitting this anonymous online survey, I am consenting to participate in this
research.
Kerry Wood
Name of Researcher (Printed)
December 15, 2012
Date
114
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