FCC Technician Class
to be used with Element 2 Question Pool
2010-2014
Presented by
Jeff Smith W4ZH
Course Philosophy (Atleast do the following
#2,3,4 & 5)
1. Introduce the concepts of electricity
and radio communications
2. Do your own memory work
3. 6 - 12 hours of study will be required
4.. Use of On-Line practice exam:
5. http://www.qrz.com/p/testing.pl
6. What is not covered: Material that is not on the
exam
2
Materials
Highly recommended
Ham Radio License
Manual & FCC Rules &
Regulations
Both are available from
the American Radio
Relay League
[ARRL.org]
3
Materials
Available from
http://www.w5yi.org/
1-800-669-9594, or Ham
Radio Outlet 1-800-4447927
WWW.ARRL.ORG
WWW.QRZ.com
4
Elmers
An “Elmer” is an
experienced amateur radio
operator who helps you
get started in amateur
radio, study for your
license exams or
upgrades, or offers any
similar encouragement.
That’s US! Scott, AL & Jeff
If you don’t have an
“Elmer” to mentor you, ask
for one.
5
HAM Radio????
HAM Radio is a slang term meaning
Amateur Radio
Jeff Smith’s Great Grandfather “coined”
the Term HAM Radio to describe
“Hobbyist AMateur Radio” in 1922
Jeff’s Grandfather is Herbert Hoover
W3ZH (Just kidding!)
6
The 10 Sub-Elements
(6) Rules
(4) Electrical Components
(3) Operating Procedures
(4) Station Equipment
(3) Propagation
(4) Modulation Modes
(2) Amateur Radio Practice
(2) Antennas & Feed lines
(4) Electrical Principles
(3) RF Safety
There are 396 questions in the pool. There are 35
questions on the test. We will use 57 real test
questions during today's course.
7
Introduction to Amateur Radio
The Entry-Level
Technician
License
(Element 2 Exam)
Only 3 Classes of
“Amateur Radio
Licenses”
In order of privileges
Technician
General
Extra
9
Entry Level License
Technician
Written Exam (Element 2)
There is no Morse Code requirement
Provides all operating privileges above
50 MHz, including the popular 2-meter
band; all modes including exotic data
and satellite modes
10
What’s this about Morse Code?
NONE!
Feb 23, 2007
FCC has eliminated
Morse Code!
Right: Scott Teerlinck MLI and J.Smith
PNS teaching one of the TSA MARS
Hands On Radio Class in MLI (Very
Cold)
11
Why Amateur Radio?
73’s
(means “Best Wishes”)
How the FCC
Defines the
Amateur Radio
Service
Sec. 97.1 Basis and purpose
FCC RULES Part 97
More on FCC Part 97 Rules at www.fcc.gov
The rules and regulations in this part are designed to
provide an amateur radio service having a fundamental
purpose as expressed in the following principles:
(a) Recognition and enhancement of the value of the
amateur service to the public as a voluntary non-commercial
communication service, particularly with respect to
providing emergency communications.
(b) Continuation and extension of the amateur’s proven
ability to contribute to the advancement of the radio art.
13
(c) Encouragement and improvement of the amateur service
through rules which provide for advancing skills in both the
communication and technical phases of the art.
(d) Expansion of the existing reservoir within the amateur
radio service of trained operators, technicians and electronics
experts.
(e) Continuation and extension of the amateur’s unique
ability to enhance international goodwill.
14
For whom is the Amateur Radio Service
untended?
A. Persons who have messages to broadcast to the
public
B. Persons who need communications for the activities
of their immediate family members, relatives and
friends
C. Persons who need two-way communications for
personal reasons
D. Persons who are interested in radio technique
solely with a personal aim and witout pecuniary
interest
15
Rules
Can’t we all just
get along?
Courtesy and Common Sense
With only a few exceptions that may seem silly,
the rules are basically common sense
No music (except from NASA)
No payment, unless you are teaching in a
school
No profanity or obscenity, no exceptions!
In a life or property threatening emergency,
just about anything goes.
17
Control Operator
Control Operator: An amateur operator
designated by the licensee of a station to be
responsible for the transmissions from that
station to assure compliance with the FCC
rules.
Generally, that means YOU
You can allow another licensed amateur to
use your station equipment and call sign
18
Third Party Communications
Third Party Communications: A message from
the control operator (1st party) of an
amateur station to another amateur station
control operator (2nd party) on behalf of
another person (3rd party)
Be sure there is a 3rd party agreement
between the US and the other station’s
country before handling 3rd party traffic.
19
Maximum Transmitter Power
In HF Technician Bands, 200 watts Peak
Envelope Power (PEP)
In most other bands, 1500 watts PEP
except for some restrictions on
Technician class.
In all cases, use the minimum power
required to make a reliable contact.
20
Station Identification
FCC rules require amateur stations to
identify every 10 minutes and at the
end of transmissions
Do not make unidentified transmissions,
(with some exceptions, like for Radio
Controlled toys.)
Note: More about station identification will be covered
under “Operating Procedures”
21
About Your Call sign
Amateur call signs in the US begin with the
letters A, K, N or W
Each call sign contains a one-digit number,
zero through nine (0 – 9)
The arrangement of letters indicates license
class, with shorter calls going to higher
license classes (W3ABC is legit!)
Licenses are good for 10 years
There is a 2 year grace period for renewal
22
ITU “International Telecommunications
Union” Region 2 is North America!!!”
23
Technician class - Band Privileges
All amateur bands 50 MHz and above
All available modes
No power restrictions
NO PRIVILEGES ON FREQUENCIES
BELOW 50 MHz!
24
ARRL CALL DISTRICT MAP
25
Technician with Morse Code
NEWINGTON, CT, Feb 23, 2007 -- A new
Amateur Radio Service regime now is in
place. The requirement to demonstrate Morse
code proficiency to gain HF privileges officially
disappeared from the FCC's Part 97 rules
today at 12:01 AM Eastern Time. At the same
time, some 200,000 Technician licensees
without Morse code exam credit acquired HF
privileges equivalent to those available to
Novice licensees.
26
Former Novice-class Band Privileges
Band
80 m
40 m
15 m
10 m
1.25 m
23 cm
Freq. In MHz
3.675 - 3.725
7.100 - 7.150
21.100 - 21.200
28.100 - 28.300
28.300 - 28.500
222.0 - 225.0
1270 - 1295
Mode
cw
cw
cw
cw
ssb
all modes
all modes
Power
200 W
200 W
200 W
200 W
200 W
25 W
5W
27
Amateur Radio Frequency Bands
28
The Relationship of Frequency and
Wavelength
The distance a radio wave travels in one cycle is called wavelength.
V+
One Cycle
0V
time
VOne Wavelength
29
Wavelength Formula
To convert from frequency to wavelength
also this tells you what Band you are
on:
300
Wavelength/Band = freq (MHz)
Wavelength and Frequency are Inversely
Proportional. As one goes up, the other
must go down.
30
On what amateur bands will you
find these frequencies?
3.975
21.25
145.21
7,233
28.350
MHz
MHz
MHz
kHz
MHz
80/75 meter band
_______
15 meter band
_______
2 meter band
_______
40 meter band
_______
10 meter band
_______
31
What is an amateur station control point?
A. The location of the station’s transmitting
antenna
B. The location of the station transmitting
apparatus
C. The location in which the control operation
function is performed
D. The mailing address of the station licensee
32
How soon may you operate a transmitter on an
Amateur radio service frequency after you pass
the examination required for you first amateur
radio license?
A. Immediately
B. 30 days after the test date
C. As soon as your name and call sign appear
in the FCC’s ULS database
D. You must wait until you receive your license
in the mail from the FCC
33
Which of the following types of transmissions
Are prohibited?
A. Transmissions that contain obscene or
indecent words or language
B. Transmissions to establish one-way
communications
C. Transmission to establish model aircraft
control
D. Transmissions for third party communications
34
What are the frequency limits of the VHF
spectrum?
A. 30 - 300 kHz
B. 30 - 300 MHz
C. 300 - 3000 kHz
D. 300 - 3000 MHz
35
Which of the following is an acceptable
language for use for station identification when
operating in a phone sub-band?
A. Any language recognized by the United
Nations
B. Any language recognized by the ITU
C. The English language
D. English, French or Spanish
36
What amount of transmitter power should be
used on the uplink frequency of an amateur
satellite or space station?
A. The maximum power of your transmitter
B. The minimum amount of power needed to
complete the contact
C. No more than half the rating of your linear
amplifier
D. No more than 1 watt
37
What is the maximum power allowed when
transmitting telecommand signals to radio
controlled models?
A. 500 milliwatts
B. 1 watt
C. 25 watts
D. 15-- watts
38
Operating Procedures
Work the
neighborhood
on the
repeater. Work
the world on
HF
Right is a
ProtoType “TSA Go
Kit by J. Smith PNS
for HF/VHF/UHF
Voice and HF Email
& will deliver 100
watts
Repeaters
Repeater: An amateur station that
simultaneously retransmits the
transmission of another amateur station
on a different channel or channels
Why? A powerful repeater transmitter
located at altitude greatly increases the
effective range of weaker hand held
and mobile radios.
40
Repeaters
In order to use a repeater, you must
first know the repeater’s transmit
frequency and offset. The offset is
the difference in the repeater’s
transmit and receive frequencies.
Most modern radios will calculate
the offset for you.
41
A Repeater in Action
Output Freq
145.21 MHz
Input Freq
144.61 MHz
Offset
- 600 kHz
60 miles
42
Repeaters
Squelch: A squelch circuit keeps the radio
speaker turned off until sufficient RF energy
is present at the receiver. This keeps the
radio quiet until a signal is received. In a
repeater, the squelch also turns on the
transmitter.
In some areas, there is such a level of RF
noise the squelch circuit is constantly opening
the audio. What do we do?
43
Repeaters
PL Tones: Developed by Motorola, Privacy Lock
(PL) tones, or Continuous Tone Coded Squelch
System (CTCSS) tones are sub-audible tones
sent by your radio to the repeater along with
your regular transmission.
On a PL equipped repeater, there must be
enough signal strength to open the squelch,
the PL tone must be present and on the correct
frequency, before the repeater will retransmit a
signal.
44
Repeaters
At the end of each transmission through
a repeater, you will hear a “roger beep”
or “courtesy tone” (a short beep, or
series of beeps).
Do not begin your transmission until
after you hear the courtesy beep.
Do not confuse the roger beep with the
PL tone.
45
Repeater Operations
Listen! If nobody is there, then the repeater is not in
use. Give your call sign once.
If the repeater is busy, wait for a break and give your
call sign ONCE.
DO NOT “KER-CHUNK” THE REPEATER
Observe rotation, if there is one.
When calling another station, always give the other
station’s call sign first, then yours.
ID every 10 minutes and at the end of the conversation
(QSO), you need not ID after every exchange.
46
Autopatch
Amateurs can use the repeater’s
“autopatch” to connect to the public
telephone network via radio.
47
Autopatch
You can make phone calls from your radio
All repeaters are required to have a 3 minute
transmit time-out feature. This applies to the
autopatch as well.
Do not abuse the autopatch.
Use judgment calling 911.
Use of autopatch may be subject to payment
of dues to the repeater owner or club.
48
The World of High Frequency
(HF)
These are the
traditional world wide bands people
usually associate with ham radio.
49
HF/Single Sideband (SSB) Operations
When trying to find a clear frequency, LISTEN
FIRST, then ask, “Is this frequency in use? <call
sign>.”
If the frequency is clear, then call “CQ” 3 x 3 - Call
CQ three times followed by your call sign phonetically
three times, listen, repeat.
When calling another station, always give the other
station’s call sign first, then yours.
ID every 10 minutes and at the end of the QSO, you
need not ID after every exchange.
Give stations you contact honest signal reports.
50
The RST Reporting System
The RST system is a quick way amateurs
use to describe a received signal.
Readability
1 = Poor 5 = Good
Signal Strength 1 = Poor 9 = Good
Tone (CW only) 1 = Poor 9 = Good
Note: Do not use the RST system on repeaters.
51
Q-signals
Q-signals are a kind of “short-hand” hams
use to communicate quickly, especially
via Morse Code.
Most Q-signals can be used as a question
or a statement:
“Can you QSY to 7.250?” (change/move)
“I will QSY to 7.250” (change/move)
52
Q-signals
QRM
(man made interference)
“Do you hear any QRM?”
“There is QRM on the Freq”
53
Q-Signals
The use of Q-signals began in the days of
the telegraph, where operators
developed a way to exchange commonly
transmitted information (location, output
power, etc.) more efficiently.
Some common Q-signals are on the next
slide…
54
Q-Signals
QRM - Is my transmission being interfered with?/Something is
causing interference
QRN - Are you troubled by static/noise?/I am troubled by
static/noise.
QRO - Shall I increase transmitter power?/I am running high power.
QRP - Shall I decrease transmitter power?/I am running low power.
QRQ - Shall I send faster?/Please send faster.
QRS - Shall I send slower?/Please send slower
QRT - Shall I stop sending?/I am going off the air.
QRZ - Who is calling me?
QSB - Are my signals fading?/Your signal is fading.
QSL - Can you acknowledge receipt?/I received the message.
QSO - Can you communicate with ____ direct?/I will communicate
with ________ directly.
QSY - Shall I change frequency?/I am changing frequency to
_______.
QTH - What is your location?/My location is _______.
55
QSL Cards
A QSL card is a written confirmation of contact
between two amateur radio stations.
56
ITU Phonetic Alphabet
A Alpha
H Hotel
O Oscar
V Victor
B Bravo
I India
P Papa
W Whiskey
C Charlie
J Juliet
Q Quebec
X X-ray
D Delta
K Kilo
R Romeo
Y Yankee
E Echo
L Lima
S Sierra
Z Zulu
F Foxtrot
M Mike
T Tango
G Golf
N November
U Uniform
57
ITU Phonetic Alphabet
Used for accurate copy when band
conditions are noisy or crowded.
Always use the proper words, they were
carefully selected so no two sound
alike.
Avoid being cute.
Generally not needed on repeaters.
58
Some No-No’s
Don’t use CB slang or 10-codes!!!!
Don’t interrupt conversations (QSO’s) in
progress.
Don’t tune up on the air, use a dummy load.
Avoid subject matter that could be offensive.
Don’t forget your manners – be polite.
Don’t whine and complain.
Don’t forget that the whole world can hear
you!
59
What is the term used to describe an amateur
station that is transmitting and receiving on the
same frequency?
A. Full duplex communication
B. Diplex communication
C. Simplex communication
D. Half duplex communication
60
What is the FCC Part 97 definition of a space
station?
A. Any multi-stage satellite
B. An Earth satellite that carries one or more
amateur operators
C. An amateur station located less than 25
km above the Earth’s surface
D. An amateur station located more than 50
km above the Earth’s surface
61
Which of the following meets the FCC
definition of harmful interference?
A. Radio transmissions that annoy users of a repeater
B. Unwanted radio transmissions that cause costly
harm to radio station apparatus
C. That which seriously degrades, obstructs or repeatly
interrupts a radio communication service operating in
accorddance with Radio Regulations
D. Static from lightning storms
62
What is the term for an FCC-issued primary
station/operator license grant?
A. Five years
B. Life
C. Ten years
D. Twenty years
63
What is the most common repeater freguency
offset in the 2 meter band?
A. plus 500 khz
B. Plus or minus 600 khz
C. Minus 500 khz
D. Only plus 600 khz
64
What is an appropriate way to call another
station on a repeater if you know the other
station’s call sign?
A. Say “break, break” then say the station’s call
sign
B. Say the station’s call sign then identify your
call sign
C. Say “CQ” three times then the other station’s
call sign
D. Wait for the station to call “CQ” then answer
it
65
INTERMISSION
66
Propagation
How radio waves get there…
and back.
Right is Jeff Cram KI4VZQ
testing the TSA Network Satellite
HF Propagation
It is the unpredictable nature of HF
propagation that makes the HF bands
so much fun.
Long distance communication (DX) is
accomplished by the reflection of radio
waves by the ionosphere, the upper
layers of the atmosphere ionized by
ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
68
Ionospheric Protection
The ionosphere and magnetosphere protect us from harmful
radiation from the sun.
69
How the Ionosphere is Formed
70
The Ionosphere
F2 Layer (Reflecting)
F1 Layer (Reflecting)
E Layer (Reflecting)
D Layer (Absorbing)
71
Layers of the Ionosphere
D Layer, Absorbing, Disappears at night
E Layer, Reflecting, Disappears at night
F1 and F2 Layers, Reflecting, combine
into a single F layer at night.
The reflective layers are responsible for
sky wave propagation.
72
Line of Sight Propagation
Worldwide
communications
by line of sight is
not possible due
to the curvature
of the Earth
73
Sky wave Propagation
Over the horizon
communication is
possible by skywave propagation,
bouncing signals
off the ionosphere.
74
Sunspots
Sunspots peak during 11-year cycles.
The higher the sunspot count, the more the
atmosphere is ionized.
Thus, higher sunspot counts support a higher
Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF).
75
VHF/UHF Propagation
Generally line of sight
Can be blocked by and/or reflected off
mountains and large buildings – even the
Moon!
Temperature inversions in the troposphere
can cause “ducting,” and a path will open
briefly for 500 - 600 miles.
VHF/UHF will penetrate the Ionosphere,
making these frequencies ideal for satellite,
and Earth-Moon-Earth (EME) operations.
76
VHF/UHF Propagation
VHF/UHF signals
travel only in straight
lines. We call this
“line of sight”
propagation
Direct communications are not
possible because of the mountain
77
What is the cause or irregular fading of signals
from distant stations during times of generally
good reception?
A. Absorption of signals by the “D” layer of the ionosphere
B. Absorption of signals by the “E” layer of the ionosphere
C. Random combining of signals arriving via different path lengths
D. Intermodulation distortion in local receiver
78
What part of the atmosphere enables the
propagation of radio signals around the world?
A. The stratosphere
B. The troposphere
C. The ionosphere
D. The magnetosphere
79
How does the wavelength of a radio wave
relate to its frequency?
A. The wavelength gets longer as its frequency
increases
B. The wavelength gets shorter as the frequency
increases
C. There is no relationship between wavelength and
frequency
D. The wavelength depends on the bandwidth of the
signal
80
What property of radio waves is often used to
identify the different frequency bands?
A. The approximate wavelength
B. The magnet intensity of waves
C. The times it takes the waves to travel one
mile
D. The voltage standing wave ratio of waves
81
What is the formula for converting frequency
to wavelength in meters?
A. Wavelength in meters equals frequency in
hertz multiplied by 300
B. Wavelength in meters equals frequency in
hertz divided by 300
C. Wavelength in meters equals frequency in
megahertz divided by 300
D. Wavelength in meters equals 300 divided by
frequency in megahertz
82
Amateur Radio Practice
Doing
things right.
Right: KC9OKC Scott
Teerlinck, Moline, IL
Safety
Amateur Radio is a relatively safe hobby.
There are only a few ways to get hurt or
killed being a ham radio operator:
1. Electrocute yourself.
2. Fall off a tower, or the inverse, have
someone/something fall on you from
a tower.
3. Slowly cook yourself with RF energy.
84
It Just Kills Me...
People have been killed by as little as 30 Volts.
As little as 1/10 (100 milliamps) of an amp can be
fatal.
AC is more dangerous than DC, as it interferes
with heart rhythm.
The path electric current takes across the body
is important. Therefore, always keep one hand
in your pocket when working near dangerous
voltages.
85
Ground Everything
86
High Voltage Safety
Ground all the equipment cases.
Make sure your power outlets are
grounded.
Do not defeat safety interlocks on
equipment that contain lethal voltages.
Remember, capacitors can store a
charge for a really long time. Care
should be taken to discharge them.
87
Antenna Safety
Don’t put antennas. where they could
fall across power lines
Don’t climb towers without a safety
belt.
Don’t do tower work without a ground
crew.
If you’re working under the tower, wear
a hard hat.
88
Lightning
Ground antennas when not in use.
Ground the tower structure itself.
Ground rods should be copper or
copper clad steel and 8 ft. long.
Disconnect AC power mains during
storms, or use line conditioners or
surge suppressors.
GET OFF THE AIR DURING SEVERE
STORMS!!
89
117 Volt AC Outlet
Ground
Hot
Neutral
For safety and fire
protection, each
outlet in your home
should be wired
exactly this way.
Match the colored
wires to the colored
screws on the
outlet.
90
Multimeter (Analog)
These meters will measure
Voltage, Resistance and
Current.
The handiest piece of test
equipment any ham could
own.
91
Digital Multimeter
These modern multimeters are
easier to use and harder to break
than older analog meters.
The higher input impedance
makes them more accurate.
Many include extra features like
diode and transistor test functions.
92
S - Meter
The S - meter gives
a relative signal strength
reading of a received
signal.
No manufacturer claims
their S - meters are
calibrated.
93
SWR Meter
Measures transmitter
output power and
reflected power from
the antenna system
94
Reflectometer
The reflectometer
is a fancy SWR
meter showing
forward power,
reflected power
and SWR all at once.
They require no set
up or calibration to
use.
95
Dummy Load
Use a dummy load to
tune your transmitter.
This is good practice
as it reduces QRM and
gives the transmitter
a perfect 50 ohm load.
Note: Dummy loads
get hot.
96
Low-Pass Filter
A low-pass filter
goes between your
transmitter and
antenna. It removes
harmonic radiation
from your signals.
Your neighbors’ TV
sets will thank you.
97
What is considered to be a proper grounding
method for a tower?
A. A single four-foot ground rod, driven into the
ground no more than 12 inches from the base
B. A ferrite-core RF choke connected between
the tower and ground
C. Separate eight-foot long ground rods for
each tower leg, bonded to the tower and each
other
D. A connection between the tower base and a
cold water pipe
98
What reading on an SWR meter indicates a
perfect impedance match between the antenna
and the feedline?
A. 2 to 1
B. 1 to 3
C. 1 to 1
D. 10 to 1
99
Where must a filter be installed to reduce
harmonic emissions?
A. Between the transmitter and the antenna
B. Between the receiver and the transmitter
C. At the station power supply
D. At the microphone
100
What is connected to the green wire in a threewire electrical AC plug?
A. Neutral
B. Hot
C. Safety ground
D. The white wire
101
Which of the following might damage a
multimeter?
A. Measuring a voltage too small for the
chosen scale
B. Leaving the meter in the milliamps position
overnight
C. Attempting to measure voltage when using
the resistance setting
D. Not allowing it to warm up properly
102
Electrical Principles
A battery, a
bulb and
some wire…
and a little
math.
Right is W4ZH Jeff
Smith “Go Kit”
Prototype in a
Car/Truck
Units of Measurement
Hertz
Volts
Amps
Ohms
Farads
Henries
Watts
Frequency (cycles per second)
Electromotive Force
Electrical Current
Resistance (to current flow)
Capacitance
Inductors
Power (the ‘work’ being done)
104
Ohms Law
Ohms Law is applicable to all
electrical circuits.
Ohms Law is a mathematical
expression of the relationship
between Voltage (EMF), Current (the
flow of electrons in a circuit), and
Resistance (to current flow).
Expressed as E = I x R
105
Voltage and Current?
+
I
E
-
R
A
It is possible to have voltage without current, as in
the case of a battery by itself. In order to have
current, there must be an electrical path (circuit)
from the positive to the negative terminal of the
voltage source.
106
Ohms Law
Electromotive Force = VOLTS
E
The flow of
electrons
AMPERES
I R
Resistance
to current flow
OHMS
107
Ohms Law
+
E/R = I
12 volts
-
4 ohms
3 ohms
2 ohms
A
As we substitute the values shown, what
happens to the current flow in the circuit?
12/4 = 3
12/3 = 4
12/2 = 6
108
Power
Energy Expended, in WATTS
P
The flow of
electrons
AMPERES
I E
Electromotive
Force
VOLTS
109
Volts, Amps and Watts
+
12 volts
4 ohms
-
A
3
The current in this circuit = _________
Amps
36
The power in this circuit = _________
Watts
110
System of Metric Units
giga
G
109
1,000,000,000
mega
M
106
1,000,000
kilo
K
103
1,000
100
1
basic unit
milli
m
10-3
0.001
micro
u
10-6
0.0000001
pico
p
10-12
0.000000000001
111
Which is a commonly accepted value for the
lowest voltage that can cause a dangerous
electric shock?
A. 12 volts
B. 30 volts
C. 120 volts
D. 300 volts
112
If an ammeter calibrated in amperes is used to
measure a 3000-milliampere current, what
reading would it show?
A. 0.003 amperes
B. 0.3 amperes
C. 3 amperes
D. 3,000,000 amperes
113
Which of the following is a good electrical
conductor?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Glass
Wood
Copper
Rubber
114
Which instrument would you use to measure
electric potential or electromotive force?
A. An ammeter
B. A voltmeter
C. A wavemeter
D. An ohmmeter
115
Electrical power is measured in which of the
following units?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Volts
Watts
Ohms
Amperes
116
Circuit Components
The stuff radios are
made of.
Right: Scorpion Antenna goes with the
“Go Kit”
Resistors
+
12 volts
3 Amps
-
4 ohms
A
As we have seen, resistors limit the flow of current.
118
Adding Resistors
In Series circuits:
Rt = R1 + R2 + R3…
In Parallel circuits:
Rt =
R1 x R2
R1+R2
119
Resistors
120
Resistors
121
Resistor Summary
Resistors oppose (resist) the flow of
current.
Resistors add in series, “Product over
the Sum” in parallel.
Resistors vary in size and material
according to heat dissipation.
The Unit of Measure is the Ohm.
122
DC and AC
Direct Current
Alternating Current
123
A Word about Magnets
Remember:
1. Like charges repel and
opposite charges attract
2. We can induce a current
in a conductor passing
through a magnetic
field.
124
Inductors
125
Inductors
Anytime current flows
through a conductor,
a magnetic field is
created around that
conductor.
126
Inductors
If we form the conductor
into a coil shape, we can
greatly intensify the
strength of the magnetic
field.
We can store electrical
energy in this magnetic
field.
127
Inductors
When we close the switch,
current flows through the
inductor, building a
magnetic field.
When we open the switch,
the field collapses, inducing
a current in the inductor.
128
Inductors
The value of an inductor can be varied by:
Coil Spacing
Coil Diameter
Number of Turns
Core Material
The Unit of Measure is the Henry.
129
Adding Inductors
In Series circuits:
Lt = L1 + L2 + L3…
In Parallel circuits:
Lt =
L1 x L2
L1 + L2
130
Inductor Summary
Inductors store electrical energy in their
magnetic fields.
Inductors are additive in series,
“product over the sum” in parallel.
Inductors tend to pass DC currents and
block AC currents.
The unit of measurement for inductors
is the Henry.
131
Capacitors
132
Capacitors
A capacitor is made by
separating two conductive
plates by an insulator or
dielectric.
Capacitors store electrical
energy in an electrostatic
field.
Capacitors tend to block
DC and pass AC
133
Capacitors
Remember: Like charges
repel. Current will flow
only until one plate is
full of negatively charged
electrons the other has
almost none. This creates
a difference of potential
(a voltage) across the
plates almost like a
battery.
134
WARNING!
CAPACITORS CAN HOLD
A CHARGE
FOR QUITE SOME TIME.
They would be very happy to bite you.
135
Intermission
136
Capacitors
The Value of a capacitor can be varied by:
Increasing/decreasing the plate area
Increasing/decreasing the plate spacing
Type of dielectric material
The Unit of Measure is the Farad.
137
Adding Capacitors
Capacitors add in parallel
Ct = C1 + C2 + C3…
In Series
Ct = C1 x C2
C1 + C2
Note: this is backwards from
resistors and inductors.
138
Capacitor Summary
Capacitors store electrical energy in
their electrostatic fields.
Capacitors are additive in parallel,
“product over the sum” in series.
Capacitors tend to pass AC currents and
block DC currents.
The unit of measurement for Capacitors
is the Farad.
139
The Fuse
Fuse
140
The Fuse
A fuse will self destruct when current flow exceeds the
fuse rating. This results in an open condition, and current
flow will then cease, saving equipment from overheating
and possible fire damage.
141
What electrical component is used to protect
other circuit components from current
overloads?
A. Fuse
B. Capacitor
C. Shield
D. Inductor
142
What does an antenna tuner do?
A. It matches the antenna system impedance
to the transceiver's output impedance
B. It helps a receiver automatically tune in
weak stations
C. It allows an antenna to be used on both
transmit and receive
D. It automatically selects the proper antenna
for the frequency band being used
143
What type of component is often used as
an adjustable volume control?
A. Fixed resistor
B. Power resistor
C. Potentiometer
D. Transformer
144
What is the approximate amount of change,
measured in decibels (dB), of a power
increase from 5 watts to 10 watts?
A. 2 dB
B. 3 dB
C. 5 dB
D. 10 dB
145
What electrical component stores energy in an
electric field?
A. Resistor
B. Capacitor
C. Inductor
D. Diode
146
Practical Circuits
Putting it all
together.
Filters
We have learned:
Capacitors tend to pass AC and high frequencies
Inductors tend to pass DC and low frequencies
We can now build circuits that…
Block transmission of harmonic radiation
Block reception of amateur frequencies
Pass only a desired group of frequencies
Note the output of each type of filter.
148
What instrument other than an SWR meter
could you use to determine if a feedline and
antenna are properly matched?
A. Voltmeter
B. Ohmmeter
C. Iambic pentameter
D. Directional wattmeter
149
Why is coaxial cable used more often than
any other feedline for amateur radio antenna
systems?
A. It is easy to use and requires few special
installation considerations
B. It has less loss than any other type of
feedline
C. It can handle more power than any other
type of feedline
D. It is less expensive than any other types of
feedline
150
1
2
3
If figure T5 represents a transceiver in which
block 1 is the transmitter portion and block 3 is
the receiver portion, what is the function of
block 2?
A. A balanced modulator
B. A transmit-receive switch
C. A power amplifier
D. A high-pass filter
151
What type of filter should be connected to a
TV receiver as the first step in trying to prevent
RF overload from a nearby 2 meter transmitter?
A. Low-pass filter
B. High-pass filter
C. Band-pass filter
D. Band-reject filter
152
What is the function of a product detector?
A. Detect phase modulated signals
B. Demodulate FM signals
C. Detect CW and SSB signals
D. Combine speech and RF signals
153
Signals and Emissions
AM/FM, SSB,
CW
Alphabet Soup!
Right: W4ZH J. Smith in
New Orleans testing HF
Voice and HF Email
FCC Emission Types
CW
Data
Phone
Test
MCW
RTTY
Image
Pulse
SS (Spread
Spectrum)
155
CW
In CW the
telegraph key
simply turns
the radio
transmitter
on and off to
form the Morse
code characters
156
CW and MCW
CW (continuous wave) is the on-off
keying of a radio signal generally used
for Morse code
MCW is the tone modulation of a carrier
wave made to sound like Morse code,
as in the automatic identifiers used on
some repeaters.
157
Phone
Phone is any voice transmission
This includes
AM (amplitude modulation)
SSB (single side band, similar to AM)
FM (frequency modulation)
158
Amplitude Modulation
An unmodulated RF
carrier wave
A carrier wave AM
modulated with a
simple audio tone
159
AM and SSB
An unmodulated RF
carrier requires narrow
bandwidth
Modulation of the carrier
creates sidebands. This
requires more bandwidth.
Transmitter power is
spread across this
bandwidth
160
AM and SSB
The carrier contains no
audio information.
The sidebands contain
duplicate audio information
By filtering out the carrier and one sideband,
we save spectrum and concentrate our RF
energy into a narrower bandwidth. SSB is
therefore more efficient.
161
SSB
MIXER
OSCILLATOR
INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY
AMPLIFIER
1
BEAT
FREQUENCY
OSCILLATOR
AUDIO
AMPLIFIER
Figure T6
What type of receiver is shown in Figure T6?
A. Direct conversion
B. Super-regenerative
C. Single-conversion superheterodyne
D. Dual-conversion superheterodyne
162
AM
vs.
Sounds really nice
Inexpensive
Simpler equipment
SSB
More efficient.
Further range based on
same output power.
Narrower bandwidth,
more room on crowded
bands.
All modern HF radios
support SSB (not all
support AM)
163
AM and SSB
When SSB is not modulated (when you
are not talking) the transmitter output
power drops to almost nothing.
When either AM or SSB is overmodulated the signal may cause
“splatter,” and interfere with other
stations.
164
Frequency Modulation
Unmodulated carrier, full power
at all times
Waveform of modulating
signal
Modulated carrier with
frequency deviation and
constant amplitude
165
Frequency Modulation
FM transmitters operate at full power at
all times, even when you are not
talking.
When an FM transmitter overmodulates, the transmitted signal
becomes so wide (bandwidth) it may
interfere with adjacent channels. This
is called over-deviation.
166
Image
Image transmissions include all modes
that will produce a picture, either video
or paper copy (like a FAX) at the
receiver.
These modes include:
SSTV (slow scan television)
ATV (amateur television)
FAX (facsimile)
167
Image
A sample amateur SSTV transmission.
168
Image
Amateurs like to
receive weather
images direct from
the satellites.
The equipment is
inexpensive and you
don’t even need a
license!
169
Data and RTTY
RTTY (radio teletype) was the forerunner of all
modern digital mode transmission.
Today, amateurs use many kinds of intelligent
on air networking modes. Collectively, the FCC
refers to these intelligent modes as “Data.”
Both Data and RTTY require an interface
between the Data or RTTY device and the
transceiver.
170
Data
vs.
Error correcting
Store and forward
networking
Addressable
Packet oriented
Will interface with
the Internet
Requires TNC to
interface with radio
RTTY
No error correction
Direct contact
No addressing
Continuous data
stream
No way!!
Requires “modem”
to interface with
radio
171
A Packet Network
With only a few watts, you can connect to an
on-air network. Your data packets will be
forwarded to hams all over the country.
Packet type protocols include:
Packet and APRS,
COVER,
PACTOR I, II & III
G-TOR
(This is what TSA uses for HF Email)
172
A Packet Network
173
A Packet Network
A digipeater is a
packet-radio station
capable of recognizing
and selectively repeating
packet frames.
All the stations on a
packet network share
the same frequency.
By the use of digipeaters,
a packet can be reliably
sent error free over great
distances.
174
TNCs
The “Terminal Node Controller” (TNC)
interfaces your computer to your transceiver.
175
TNCs (like the old dial up modems we used to get on the Internet)
176
Test, SS and Pulse
Test emissions are simply unmodulated
carrier.
SS (Spread Spectrum) are experimental
frequency hopping modes.
Pulse emissions are used for telemetry.
177
What method of call sign identification is
required for a station transmitting phone
signals?
A. Send the call sign followed by the indicator RPT
B. Send the call sign using CW or phone emission
C. Send the call sign followed by the indicator R
D. Send the call sign using only phone emission
178
Which of the following would be connected
between a transceiver and computer in a packet
radio station?
A. Transmatch
B. Mixer
C. Terminal node controller
D. Antenna
179
What happens when the deviation of an
FM transmitter is increased?
A. Its signal occupies more bandwidth
B. Its output power increases
C. Its output power and bandwidth increases
D. Asymmetric modulation occurs
180
Which type of modulation is most commonly
used for VHF and UHF voice repeaters?
A. AM
B. SSB
C. PSK
D. FM
181
What can you do if you are told your
FM handheld or mobile transceiver is
over deviating?
A. Talk louder into the microphone
B. Let the transceiver cool off
C. Change to a higher power level
D. Talk farther away from the microphone
182
Antennas
Antennas and Feed lines
Antenna systems are resonant - that is, they
respond best to a certain frequency.
For best operation, the transmitter, feed line
and antenna must all be tuned to resonance or something that looks like resonance.
The transmitting antenna induces a radio
wave into the air. The radio wave travels to
the receiving antenna, and induces a current
in that antenna.
184
The 1/2 Wave Dipole
Length of dipole in feet =
468
f (MHz)
185
The 1/2 Wave Dipole
186
The 1/4 Wave Vertical
Length of vertical in feet =
234
f (MHz)
187
The 1/4 Wave Vertical
A side view of the radiation pattern of a 1/4 wave
vertical. From above the pattern is round like a
doughnut. A perfect ground would be a car roof.
188
The Yagi (Type of Beam Antenna)
The yagi is the ham’s favorite directional
antenna.
They usually consist of one driven element,
and several “parasitic” (un-driven) elements.
Reflector (longer than driver)
Driven Element (1/2 wave dipole)
One or more Directors (shorter than the driven
element)
189
The director
acts like a
lens
Director
Boom
Feedline
Reflector
The reflector
acts like a
mirror
Driver
The Yagi
Gain
190
The Yagi
The yagi antenna focuses RF
energy in one direction, giving the
appearance ofgetting “free power.”
This free power is
called Antenna Gain.
191
The Yagi (Beam Antenna)
A 3 element HF Yagi
A VHF Yagi
192
Feed lines
Feed line connects your radio to the antenna.
Feed lines are either balanced (neither side
grounded) like ladder-line or unbalanced (one
side grounded) like coaxial cable.
Either type can be used in your station.
Coax is more popular and easier to work
with.
193
Coax
vs.
Can be buried or run
near metal objects.
Less RFI since outer
shield is usually
grounded.
Weatherproof
Easy to handle and
connect
Ladder Line
Very low signal loss
Can tolerate high
SWR
Can tolerate high
current
194
Coax
All coaxial cable
will feature a
center conductor
surrounded by a
dielectric insulator
and one or more
layers of shielding
and an insulating
cover.
195
The Balun
The balun converts from
BALanced feed line to
UNbalanced feed lines.
Many antenna systems work
better with a balun between
the feed point and the coax
196
SWR
SWR (standing wave ratio) is a mathematical
expression of the power going to an antenna
and the power being reflected back.
The idea is to get as close to 1:1 as possible.
Most hams are happy with SWR of 1.5:1.
The best way to get a good SWR is to cut the
antenna to resonance.
197
The Antenna Tuner
“Antenna Tuners” do not really tune antennas.
They provide an impedance match between
the transmitter and antenna system.
198
What is the approximate length, in inches, of a
6 meter 1/2-wavelength wire dipole antenna?
A. 6
B. 50
C. 112
D. 236
199
What is the approximate length, in inches, of
a quarter-wavelength vertical antenna for 146
MHz?
A. 112
B. 50
C. 19
D. 12
200
How would you change a dipole antenna to
make it resonant on a higher frequency?
A. Lengthen it
B. Insert coils in series with radiating wires
C. Shorten it
D. Add capacity hats to the ends of the
radiating wires
201
Which of the following describes a simple
dipole mounted so the conductor is parallel to
the Earth's surface?
A. A ground wave antenna
B. A horizontally polarized antenna
C. A rhombic antenna
D. A vertically polarized antenna
202
What type of antennas are the quad, Yagi,
and dish?
A. Non-resonant antennas
B. Loop antennas
C. Directional antennas
D. Isotropic antennas
203
What is a disadvantage of the "rubber duck"
antenna supplied with most handheld radio
transceivers?
A. It does not transmit or receive as effectively
as a full-sized antenna
B. It transmits a circularly polarized signal
C. If the rubber end cap is lost it will unravel
very quickly
D. All of these choices are correct
204
What, in general terms, is standing wave ratio
(SWR)?
A. A measure of how well a load is matched to
a transmission line
B. The ratio of high to low impedance in a
feedline
C. The transmitter efficiency ratio
D. An indication of the quality of your station’s
ground connection
205
RF Safety
Can’t touch this.
Intermission
207
2 Types of Radiation
Ionizing
Gamma and X-ray
Can cause ionization of atomic structure
Not good for your DNA
Non-ionizing
Radio waves
Can cause heating of biological tissue
If sufficient energy is present, can cause burns
208
RF Heating
Radio waves can heat body tissue.
Works exactly like your microwave oven.
The area most likely to be injured is the eye
as it lacks sufficient blood flow for cooling.
The eye can form cataracts from repeated
exposure to high levels of RF energy.
NEVER touch an antenna or other RF source.
You could be severely burned.
209
Controlled and Uncontrolled
Environments
Controlled Environments
The amateur operators household and property
Persons here are aware of RF risks, and have
control of the transmitting equipment.
Uncontrolled Environments
Your neighbors household and property
Persons here are generally not aware of RF risks
and have NO control over the transmitter.
210
Exposure Averaging Times
Controlled Environments
The exposure averaging time is
6 Minutes
Uncontrolled Environments
The exposure averaging time is
30 Minutes
211
3 Methods of RF Checking
Measure the RF fields
requires costly equipment that you don’t have
Calculate the RF fields
requires complex software that you don’t have
Use the charts published by the FCC
The charts are free
Fairly simple to use
212
RF Safety for Dummies
Install your antenna away from people,
especially your neighbors. The higher
the better.
Make sure your antenna is not near or
could fall on a power line.
Keep your hands and other body parts
away from the antenna and feed lines.
213
Who is Exempt?
The RF safety regulations do
not apply to:
Mobile equipment
Hand-held radios
Any station that produces
less than 50 watts PEP
214
What is the minimum safe distance from a power line
to allow when installing an antenna?
A. Half the width of your property
B. The height of the power line above ground
C. 1/2 wavelength at the operating frequency
D. So that if the antenna falls unexpectedly, no part of
it can come closer than 10 feet to the power wires
215
What is the maximum power level that an
amateur radio station may use at VHF
frequencies before an RF exposure evaluation
is required?
A. 1500 watts PEP transmitter output
B. 1 watt forward power
C. 50 watts PEP at the antenna
D. 50 watts PEP reflected power
216
What could happen if a person accidentally
touched your antenna while you were
transmitting?
A. Touching the antenna could cause
television interference
B. They might receive a painful RF burn
C. They might develop radiation poisoning
D. All of these choices are correct
217
Why is duty cycle one of the factors used to
determine safe RF radiation exposure levels?
A. It affects the average exposure of people
to radiation
B. It affects the peak exposure of people to
radiation
C. It takes into account the antenna feedline loss
D. It takes into account the thermal effects of
the final amplifier
218
Which of the following actions might amateur
operators take to prevent exposure to RF
radiation in excess of FCC-supplied limits?
A. Relocate antennas
B. Relocate the transmitter
C. Increase the duty cycle
D. All of these choices are correct
219
What to Expect at the Exam Session
There will be a fee ($15) to take as many
tests as you like, as long as you are passing
them. To retest, just pay another $15
All the elements will be offered.
Bring photo identification and your Social
Security card. Children will need to show a
birth certificate.
The tests are not timed.
Bring a #2 pencil.
220
What to Expect at the Exam Session
You can bring a calculator.
Do not write in the test booklet.
You can ask for scratch paper to doodle on.
You can retest any time, but usually NOT
more than once at the same session.
The Element 2 - Technician Class Exam
consists of 35 multiple choice questions,(you
can miss 9) and you must answer 75% or
better to pass.
221
Who passes
the exams?
Those who:
Prepare by studying
30 min to one hour
a day. Take their
time on the exam.
Ask for help from an
Elmer.
Keep trying, Never ever give up!!!!!!
222
Your new Call Sign
You can get on the air as soon as you
know your new call sign. ie: in the FCC
Database!!
Visit the Universal Licensing System on
www.ftc.gov or do a Name Search on
www.qrz.com, 6 - 8 days after you pass
your exam.
Your license will arrive in the mail in a few
weeks.
223
Welcome to the World of
Amateur Radio
What to do with that new call sign
Now that I am a Amateur Radio
Operator, What Do I Do?
Support Amateur Radio locally. Be involved in
local clubs and associations.
Get involved in community service through
your local ARES group, or the American Red
Cross.
Join the American Radio Relay League (ARRL)
More importantly, get on the air and say
something!
225
ARES
ARES is the local
community emergency
services organization
where hams can serve
as only amateur radio
can…providing
communications for
emergencies and
special events.
226
Why join the ARRL?
Since 1914 the American Radio
Relay League has represented the
interests of Radio Amateurs before
the FCC and Congress. While there
is room for policy debate, those
who do not support the ARRL have
virtually no voice in matters
concerning ham radio. Also, the
QST magazine is an excellent
educational tool, full of interesting
articles and fun projects.
227
Where do I go from here?
Stamp Collecting
Meteorology
Geography
Computers
Radio Astronomy
Emergency Services
Support your local Amateur Radio organization!
228
This Completes the Course…
…and begins a worldwide journey that
will last you a lifetime.
Enjoy your new hobby!
73’s de W4ZH Jeff Smith
Pensacola, FL
229