The dialectics of flexible alliances and
identities in Lower Casamance
Alexander Y. Cobbinah
Crossroads Project/SOAS
ac115@soas.ac.uk
1
Joola Eegimaa (or Banjal)
Joola Kujireray
Bainounk Gubëeher
10km
Bonjour les voisins…
Jacqueline Biagui
Partner: Mamadou Bojang
(Joola Fogny/Muslim)
(Baïnounk/Muslim converted)
Gubëeher (Gbh)
Wolof (Wlf)
Fogny (Fgn)
Kuwaatay (Kuw)
French
Kreol
Manding
Seereer
Kujireray
Eegimaa
Pulaar
Kaasa
Gbh, Wlf
Gbh, Wlf
Cousin: Martha Biagui
(Baïnounk/Christian)
Niece: Cocotte Aminata Diata
(Fogny/Muslim)
Kuw, Gbh, Wlf
Claude Diatta
(Kuwaatay/Christian)
Step-daughter: Adja Bojang
(Fogny/Muslim)
Nephew: Mamadou L. Diata
(Fogny/Muslim)
Adopted niece: Juliette Biagui
(Baïnounk/Christian)
Yaya Barry
(Peul/Muslim)
Casimir Diatta
(Kuwaatay/Christian)
Badara Diara
(Bambara/Muslim)
Pape Charles Diarra
(Bambara Muslim)
Research questions
• Why the large language repertoires?
• Why keep minority languages alive?
• Which ideologies/ structures support
multilingualism?
4
Globalisation on the Upper
Guinea Coast
Second wave of globalisation C. 19th – 20th
First wave of globalisation C. 15th – 18th ct.
16th-18th:
Triangular trade
Sahelian empires
-centralised structures
-absolute power
Guinea Coast
5
Historically grown concept of identity:
First wave of
globalisation
Fluid, flexible, situational
identities based on various
criteria. Ethnic and linguistic
portfolio is strategically
used.
Imported concept of identity:
Second wave of
globalisation
Essentialist concepts and
labels of identity based on
linguistic criteria are
introduced and applied by
European researchers,
traders and administrators.
6
Micro local level:
Macro local level:
National level:
Family and friends
Initiation
Codification, Culture Festivals
Other Baïnounk: French, Wolof
Speeches: “Pure” Gubëeher
Visitors: Joola, Wolof,
French
Ceremonies: Gubëeher
Wife: Joola Fogny
Children: Gubëeher/ Wolof
Friends: any
Business: Kreol, Wolof
Ceremonies: Gubëeher
Dance troupe: Gubëeher
Laurent Manga, Djibonker
Wolof
Gubëeher
Joola Fogny
Other Joola
Kreol
French
7
Identity models today
Level
Ethnic-linguistic Strategic use of
ideology
language/multilingual
practice
Function
LOCAL
Micro
Indexical
Personal/practical
Religion, practical
purposes
NATIONAL
Essentialist
Symbolic
Legitimacy in a
nation-state
LOCAL
Macro
Confederational Brokerage
/indexical
Maintain difference
in unity
8
Cultural identity on the Macro-Local level
9
Case study: The male initiati
Chronology of dates for male initiation
1 Mof Ávvi
2 Djibonker/Brin
3 Bayot Kugere
4 Bayot Kuhiŋe
10
Regional integration through mutual visits
Trans-ethnic bonding
Integration of dispersed families
shared culture
high familiarity
increased likelihood of marriage
integrated social networks
integrated linguistic repertoires
11
A beneficial ecology for Gubëeher
• “confederational” cultural set-up (as
opposed to a hegemonic one) is conducive
to high levels of multilingualism
• Small languages have a place in cultural
confederation
• marrying out but still staying culturally in
• Share culture but keep local identity
12
What next?
13
Literature
Baum, Robert M. 1999. Shrines of the Slave Trade: Diola Religion &
Society in Precolonial Senegambia. New York : Oxford University Press.
De Jong, Ferdinand 2007. Masquerades of Modernity. Power and
Secrecy in Casamance, Senegal. London : Edinburgh University Press
Kopytoff, Igor (ed.) 1987. The African Frontier. Indiana Univerity Press
Hawthorne, Walter. 2003. Planting rice and harvesting slaves:
transformations along the Guinea-Bissau coast, 1400-1900.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Lüpke, Friederike to appear. From a typology of language contact
towards a typology of multilingualism.
Mark, Peter 2002. ‘Portuguese’ Style and Luso-African Identity.
Precolonial Senegambia, Sixteenth – Nineteenth Centuries.
Bloomington/Indianapolis : Indiana University Press
Mühlhäusler, Peter 2000. Language Planning and Language Ecology,
Current Issues in Language Planning, 1:3, 306-367.
14
Ideology…
A speaker of Gubëeher about (all) other Baïnounk communities:
1)
‘They are colonised by the Mandinka.’
2)
‘They don’t say a word without saying « Nko ».’
3)
‘We speak the purest Bainounk’
Mandinka are the “other” par
excellence, heavily negatively
stereotyped, antithesis to what
is perceived as desirable.
…and practice
1) imɛŋ a-n-kɔlɔnise-a paː le mandɛŋg
3Pl 3-Pl-colonise-Pass by Def.Pl Mandinka
‘They are colonised by the Mandinka.’
2) d-ə-n-lob bə-lob b-a-n-jɛn ŋko
Neg.Fut-3-Pl-speak Cl.ba-speak Neg.Impf-3-Pl-say Nko
‘They don’t say a word without saying « Nko ».’
3) minɔ gu-bəːher pyr g-i-n-lob-ɛ
1Plincl Cl.gu-Baïnounk pure Foc.Obj-1-Pl-speak-1Plincl.Perf
‘We speak the pure Bainounk.’
French
Mandinka
Also in Joola languages
The ecology defines itself in reference to its
“outside”, where maximal difference is construed
with, e.g., Mandinka or Wolof identity and
language, whereas Joola and especially Kreol
influences remain less visible.