Lecture 24
Quantitative Data Analysis
Observation study
By
Aziza Munir
Learning Objectives
1. Types of Observed Phenomena
2. Advantages and Disadvantages of
Observation
3. Types of Observation Techniques
Observation as a data collection method
‘Observation involves the systematic
observation , recording, description
analysis and interpretation of people’s
behaviour’
Saunders et al. (2009)
Types of observation
The two main types
• Participant observation – emphasises the discovery
of meaning attached to actions (qualitative)
• Structured observation – is concerned with
frequency of actions
(quantitative)
Participant observation (1)
Definition
‘Where the researcher attempts to participate
fully in the lives and actions of subjects,
enabling them to not merely observe what is
happening but also feeling it’
Adapted from Gill and Johnson (2002)
1. Types of Observed Phenomena
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Physical actions
Verbal behavior
Expressive behavior
Spatial relations and locations
Temporal patterns
Verbal and pictorial records
Examples for Observed Phenomena
Phenomena
Example
Human behavior or physical Shoppers (buyers) movement
action
pattern in a store
Verbal behavior
Expressive behavior
Statements made by
airline travelers who wait
in line
Facial expressions, tone of
voice, and other form of
body language
Examples for Observed Phenomena
Phenomena
Example
Spatial relations
and locations
How close visitors at an
art museum stand to paintings
Temporal patterns
How long fast-food customers
wait for their order to be served
Physical objects
What brand name items are
stored in consumers’ pantries
Verbal and Pictorial
Records
Bar codes on product packages
2. Advantages and Disadvantages of
Observation
“YOU SEE, BUT YOU
DO NOT OBSERVE.”
Sherlock Holmes
2.1. Benefits of Observing Human Behavior
• Communication with respondent is not
necessary
• Data without distortions due to self-report
(e.g.: without social desirability) Bias
• No need to rely on respondents memory
• Nonverbal behavior data may be obtained
Benefits of Observing Human Behavior
• Certain data may be obtained more quickly
• Environmental conditions may be recorded
• May be combined with survey to provide
supplemental evidence
2.2. Limitations of Observing
Human Behavior
• Cognitive phenomena cannot be observed
• Interpretation of data may be a problem (e.g.
misinterpretation)
• Not all activity can be recorded
• Only short periods can be observed
• Observer bias possible (e.g. selective
perception)
• Possible invasion of privacy
3. Types of Observation Techniques
• Natural versus Contrived Observation
• Direct versus Indirect Observation
• Disguised versus Nondisguised Observation
• Physical-trace evidence Observation
• Mechanical Observation
3.1.Natural versus Contrived Observation
Natural Observation:
• Reactions and behavior observed as they
occur naturally in real-life situations
• A wide variety of companies are sending
researchers to the field to observe consumers
in their natural environment.
• Natural observation is also suited for
ethnographic research on foreign cultures.
Contrived Observation:
• Environment artificially set up by the researcher.
• Researchers are increasingly relying on
computers to conduct simulated market testing.
• Offers a greater degree of control
– Speedy
– Efficient
– Less expensive
• However, it may be questionable as to whether
or not the data collected does truly reflect a "real
life" situation.
3.2. Direct versus Indirect Observation
Direct observation captures actual behavior or
phenomenon of interest
Indirect observation consists of examining the results
of the phenomenon.
• can give only relatively crude or imprecise
indications of a phenomenon
• More efficient use of research time
• More efficient use of research budget
• May be the only way to get data from situations
impractical to observe directly.
3.3. Disguised versus Nondisguised Observation
Nondisguised observation:
• Respondents are aware that they are being
observed
• Data may be contaminated by respondentinduced errors.
• Data gathered through using disguised
observation might not be as rich as those
from nondisguised observation.
Disguised Observation
• Respondents are unaware they are being
observed
• Allows for monitoring of the true reactions of
individuals.
• Unethical if disguised observation monitors
– Normally private behaviors
– Behaviors that may not be voluntarily revealed to
researchers.
• Mystery shopping
– popular disguised observational technique
– Mystery shopper
• Unknown to the retail establishment
• Visits the store
• Uses a structured script
• Observes and records the shopping
experience.
3.4. Physical-trace evidence
Observation
• Wear and tear of a book indicates
how often it has been read
• garbology - looking for traces of purchase patterns
in garbage
• detecting store traffic patterns by observing the
wear in the floor (long term) or the dirt on the
floor (short term)
3.5. Types of Mechanical Observation
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Eye-Tracking
Response Latency
Voice Pitch Analysis
People Meter
Psychogalvanometer
Monitoring Web Site Traffic
Eye Tracking
Measures unconscious eye movements
Records how the subject actually reads or views
an advertisement, product packaging,
promotional displays, websites, etc.
Measures which sections attract customers'
attention and how much time they spend
looking at those sections
• Oculometers - what the subject is looking at
• Pupilometers - how interested is the viewer (This
device observes and records changes in the
diameter of the subject’s pupils)
Voice Pitch Analysis
• Measures emotional reactions through
physiological changes in a person’s voice
• Used to determine
– how strongly a respondent feels about an answer
– how much emotional commitment is attached to an
answer.
• Variations from normal voice pitch is considered a
measure of emotional commitment to the
question's answer.
Response Latency
• It measures the speed with which a
respondent gives a decision about a choice
between alternatives
• It records the decision time necessary to
make this choice.
• For instance: it can measure the effectiveness
of an advertisement on brand preferences.
• It assumes that a quick expression of brand
preference indicates a stronger preference.
People Meter
• Electronic device to monitor television
viewing behavior
– who is watching
– what shows are being watched.
Psychogalvanometer
• Measures galvanic skin response
• Involuntary changes in the electrical resistance
of the skin
• Assumption: physiological changes accompany
emotional reactions
Participant observation (2)
Points to consider
• Used both as the principle research method and in
combination with other methods
• Researchers become immersed in the research
setting
• Researchers try to understand the process by
which individual identity is constructed and
reconstructed (symbolic interactionism)
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Data collection and analysis (1)
Types of data generated by participant
observation
• Primary observations (e.g. Diary)
• Secondary observations (observer’s interpretations)
• Experiential data (perceptions and feelings of the
observer)
Delbridge and Kirkpatrick (1994)
Data collection and analysis (2)
Points to consider
• Data may be classed as ‘descriptive observation’
and ‘narrative account’
Robson (2002)
• Data recording method(s) will depend on the role
• Data collection and analysis may be part of the
same process
• Use of analytic induction leads to redefinition of the
original hypothesis
Data collection and analysis (3)
Points to consider
• Threats to validity
• The perspective of the subject - not the researcher
• Advantages and disadvantages of participant
observation are summarised in Table 9.1
Saunders et al. (2009)
Structured Observation (1)
Points to consider
• Structured observation is systematic and aims to
establish straightforward facts
• Structured observation was an important part of
Mintzberg’s (1973) study of managerial work
• Proliferation of the Internet potentially widens the
scope of participant observation
• Advantages and disadvantages of structured
observation are summarised in Table 9.2
Saunders et al. (2009)
Structured observation (2)
Data collection and analysis
• Choosing an ‘off the shelf’ coding schedule
• Designing your own coding schedule
• Combining both types of schedule
• Use of simple (manual) or complex
(computer) methods of analysis
Observation Methods
Structured Versus Unstructured Observation
• For structured observation, the researcher specifies in
detail what is to be observed and how the
measurements are to be recorded, e.g., an auditor
performing inventory analysis in a store.
• In unstructured observation, the observer monitors all
aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant to the
problem at hand, e.g., observing children playing with
new toys.
Observation Methods
Disguised Versus Undisguised Observation
• In disguised observation, the respondents are unaware
that they are being observed. Disguise may be
accomplished by using one-way mirrors, hidden
cameras, or inconspicuous mechanical devices.
Observers may be disguised as shoppers or sales clerks.
• In undisguised observation, the respondents are aware
that they are under observation.
Observation Methods
Natural Versus Contrived Observation
• Natural observation involves observing behavior as it
takes places in the environment. For example, one could
observe the behavior of respondents eating fast food in
Burger King.
• In contrived observation, respondents' behavior is
observed in an artificial environment, such as a test
kitchen.
A Classification of Observation Methods
Fig. 6.3
Classifying
Observation
Methods
Observation Methods
Personal
Observation
Mechanical
Observation
Audit
Content
Analysis
Trace
Analysis
Observation Methods
Personal Observation
• A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs.
• The observer does not attempt to manipulate the
phenomenon being observed but merely records what
takes place.
• For example, a researcher might record traffic counts
and observe traffic flows in a department store.
Observation Methods
Mechanical Observation
Do not require respondents' direct participation.
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The AC Nielsen audimeter
Turnstiles that record the number of people entering or
leaving a building.
On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)
Optical scanners in supermarkets
Do require respondent involvement.
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Eye-tracking monitors
Pupilometers
Psychogalvanometers
Voice pitch analyzers
Devices measuring response latency
Observation Methods
Audit
• The researcher collects data by examining physical
records or performing inventory analysis.
• Data are collected personally by the researcher.
• The data are based upon counts, usually of physical
objects.
• Retail and wholesale audits conducted by marketing
research suppliers were discussed in the context of
syndicated data in Chapter 4
Observation Methods
Content Analysis
• The objective, systematic, and quantitative description
of the manifest content of a communication.
• The unit of analysis may be words, characters
(individuals or objects), themes (propositions), space
and time measures (length or duration of the message),
or topics (subject of the message).
• Analytical categories for classifying the units are
developed and the communication is broken down
according to prescribed rules.
Observation Methods
Trace Analysis
Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence,
of past behavior.
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The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the replacement
rate was used to determine the relative popularity of exhibits.
The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to gauge the
readership of various advertisements in a magazine.
The position of the radio dials in cars brought in for service was used
to estimate share of listening audience of various radio stations.
The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to assess the
affluence of customers.
The magazines people donated to charity were used to determine
people's favorite magazines.
Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to examine
browsing and usage behavior by using cookies.
Relative Advantages of Observation
• They permit measurement of actual behavior rather
than reports of intended or preferred behavior.
• There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by
the interviewer and the interviewing process is
eliminated or reduced.
• Certain types of data can be collected only by
observation.
• If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of
short duration, observational methods may be cheaper
and faster than survey methods.
Relative Disadvantages of Observation
• The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined
since little is known about the underlying motives, beliefs,
attitudes, and preferences.
• Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can
bias the data.
• Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive,
and it is difficult to observe certain forms of behavior.
• In some cases, the use of observational methods may be
unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge or
consent.
It is best to view observation as a complement to survey
methods, rather than as being in competition with them.
Conclusion
• Observation technique
• Types and methodology of observation
• Use of observation in quantitative data sett of
primary appraoch