©2015 National Safety Council
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Chapter 1
Safety Through Design
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1-1. The Model for Safety Through Design
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1-2. Benefits of Safety Through Design
• Significant reductions in injuries, illnesses, and damage to the
environment
• Improved productivity
• Reduced operating costs
• Avoidance of expensive retrofitting to correct design
shortcomings
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1-3. Hierarchy of Controls
To achieve the greatest effectiveness in hazard avoidance, elimination,
or control, companies should apply the following priorities to all
design and redesign processes:
First Priority:
Eliminate or reduce risk in the
design and redesign process
Fourth Priority:
Provide warning systems
Second Priority:
Reduce risks by substituting less
hazardous methods or materials
Third Priority:
Incorporate safety devices
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Fifth Priority:
Apply administrative controls
Sixth Priority:
Use personal protective equipment
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Chapter 2
Buildings and Facility Layout
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2-1. Design for Safety
General Design Considerations
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Illumination
Noise and vibration control
Product flow
Ventilation
Control of temperature and
humidity
Employee work positions and
movements
Supervision and communication
Support requirements
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Factors to Consider in the
Design of Tools & Equipment
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Construction and procedures
Visual displays, signs, labels
Protective features and guards
Controls and handles
Maintenance and service needs
Accident prevention signs
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2-2. Factors Affecting Site Selection
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Relationship of structure to climate and terrain
Space requirements
Type and size of buildings
Necessary disposal facilities
Transportation to and from facilities
Market
Labor supply
Hazards to the community
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2-3. Factors Affecting Size, Shape & Type of Structure
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Nature of the Business and Processes
Nature of the Production Materials
Maintenance
Heating, Ventilation, and Air-conditioning Equipment
Working Conditions
Shipping and Receiving Materials
Economic Considerations
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Chapter 3
Construction of Facilities
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3-1. Elements of a Safety Plan
A successful plan must address:
• Site-specific hazards
• Safety expectations regarding safe work practices
• Clearly defined safety roles and responsibilities
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3-2. Role of the Field Engineer
• Identify site-specific safety hazards to contractors
• Establish that the contractors recognize hazards and are
prepared to deal with them
• Coordinate the interfaces between contractors
• Coordinate the interfaces between contractors and operating
facilities
• Verify that the contractor is performing to agreed-upon contract
requirements
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Chapter 4
Maintenance of Facilities
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4-1. Components of Facility Maintenance
• Proper long-term care of the buildings, grounds, and equipment
• Routine care to service and appearance
• Repair work required to restore or improve service and
appearance
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4-2. Stairs and Exits
Note the following items, and repair or correct any defects found
during a maintenance inspection:
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appropriate exit signs
improper or inadequate design,
construction, or location
lack of handrails
handrails placed too low or
rough handrails
improper lighting (including
emergency lighting)
obstructions
locked doors
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doors that open in the direction
of an exit
poor housekeeping
wet, slippery, or damaged
surfaces
faulty treads or mats on stairs
lack of curbing on ramps
differentiation between
– the exit access
– the exit
– the exit discharge
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4-3. Indoor Environmental Quality Elements
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Lighting
Ventilation
Chemical contaminants
Biological agents
Noise
Vibration
Air quality
Ergonomics
Temperature
Particulates
Relative humidity
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Chapter 5
Fired Pressure Vessels (Boilers) and Unfired Pressure Vessels
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5-1. Common Causes of Explosions in Pressure Vessels
Anticipate and avoid the following common causes of explosions in
pressure vessels:
• errors in design, construction, and installation
• improper operation, human failure, and improper training of
operators
• corrosion or erosion of construction materials
• Failure or intentional defeat of safety devices, and failure or
override of automatic control devices
• failure to inspect thoroughly, properly, and frequently
• improper application of equipment
• overfiring
• lack of planned preventive maintenance
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5-2. Safety Devices for Pressure Vessels
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Safety valves—the spring-loaded type is commonly used on vessels
containing air, steam, gases, and liquids
Rupture disks—commonly used in chemical processing plants, these
devices are designed to open and relieve pressure on a vessel or system
of vessels
Vacuum breakers—may be spring-loaded or weight-balanced, these
are used on vessels working intermittently between pressure and
vacuum
Water seal—a U-pipe filled with water used on vessels that operate on
low pressure or under slight vacuum, such as alcohol stills and gas
holders
Vents—relieves contents of a vessel before excess pressure builds
Regulation (or reducing) valves—reduces high-pressure steam to
the pressure required for a specific operation
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Chapter 6
Safeguarding
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6-1. Characteristics of a Proper Guard
The characteristics of a proper guard include:
• integrated as a part of the machine
• well constructed, durable, and strong
• able to accommodate workpiece feeding and ejection
• protective
• easy to inspect and maintain
• relatively tamper-proof or foolproof
On the other hand, a guard should not:
• create another hazard
• interfere with production
• cause work discomfort
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6-2. Safeguarding the Point of Operation of a Power Press
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Chapter 7
Personal Protective Equipment
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7-1. Permissible Noise Exposures
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7-2. Suggested Outline for Selecting
Respiratory Protection Devices
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7-3. Protective Footwear Requirements
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Chapter 8
Electrical Safety
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8-1. Path of Current
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8-2. Electrical Equipment Selection and
Installation Checklist
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– follow recommendations of
established codes & standards
– check state & local codes for
zoning requirements
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interlocks
barriers
warning signs
guarding
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Switches
– knife switches
– pendant switches
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Protective Devices
– fuses, link fuses, plug fuses,
cartridge fuses
– circuit breakers
Installing Electrical Equipment
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– push button or snap switches
– flush switches
– surface switches
Selecting Electrical Equipment
Ground-Fault Circuit
Interrupters
Control Equipment
Motors
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dust, oils, moisture
misalignment and vibration
overloads
friction and wear
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8-3. Electrical Equipment Selection and
Installation Checklist (continued)
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Extension Cords
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portable tools
heating devices
flexible cords
extension lamps
Test Equipment
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ammeter
voltmeter
megohmmeter
ground-fault indicators and
locators
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wattmeter
industrial analyzer
receptacle circuit tester
receptacle tension tester
voltage detector
recording instrument
specialized testing instruments
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8-4. Electrical Detectors
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Chapter 9
Fire Protection
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9-1. Fire Risk Assessment Steps
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9-2. Objectives of a Fire Protection Program
1. Preventing fires
2. Detecting and responding to fires
– early detection
– initiating appropriate alarms
– responding quickly to alarms
3. Controlling, suppressing, and extinguishing fires
4. Recovering from fires
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9-3. Example Risk Matrix
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9-4. Fire Extinguisher Classification and Symbols
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9-5. Common Types of Sprinklers and
Water-Spray Systems
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Automatic Sprinklers—the most extensively used fixed fire
extinguishing system, considered by most fire protection engineers as
the most important fire-fighting tool
Wet-Pipe Systems—accounts for the greatest percentage of sprinkler
installation, this system works when heat fuses the fusible link on a
sprinkler head, immediately releasing water over the area below
Dry-Pipe Systems—a substitute for the wet-pipe system commonly
used in areas where piping is exposed to freezing temperatures
Pre-Action Systems—similar to dry-pipe systems, this sprinkler
system works faster because a pre-action valve, actuated by a separate
fire detection system, controls the water supply
Deluge Systems—commonly designed for facilities that contain large
quantities of flammable materials and where great quantities of water
must be applied over large areas. These systems are recommended
wherever quickly spreading fires (flash fires) are possible
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Chapter 10
Flammable and Combustible Liquids
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10-1. Hazards of Flammable and Combustible Liquids
The degree of potential hazard from flammable and combustible
liquids depends on four elements:
• The flash point of the liquid (lowest temperature at which liquid
gives off enough vapor to create a flammable mixture near the
surface of the liquid)
• The concentration of vapors in the air (whether the vapor-air
mixture is within the flammable range)
• The availability of a source of ignition at sufficient temperature
to enable ignition
• The degree to which ventilation prevents accumulation of vapors
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10-2. Potential Health Hazards Associated with
Flammable Liquids
• Skin irritation
• Intoxication or illness from inhaling vapors
• Oxygen deficiency in closed containers used to store these
liquids
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Chapter 11
Nanomaterials in the Workplace
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11-1. Steps for Clearing Use of
Nanomaterials in the Workplace
1. Investigate and determine the physical and chemical properties
(size, shape, solubility, etc.) that influence the potential toxicity
of the nanoparticle
2. Evaluate short- and long-term effects nanomaterials may have
on organ systems and tissue
3. Determine biological mechanisms for potential toxic effects
4. Create and integrate models to assist in assessing potential
hazards
5. Determine if a measure, other than mass, is more appropriate
for determining toxicity
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11-2. Monitoring Results of Nanomaterials Use
After nanomaterials are put into use in the workplace, epidemiology
and surveillance can be used to measure the consequences of this use.
These monitoring steps include:
• evaluating existing epidemiological studies of workplaces where
nanomaterials are used
• identifying knowledge gaps in which epidemiological studies could
promote the understanding of nanomaterials and evaluating the
likelihood of conducting such studies
• integrating nanotechnology health and safety issues into existing
hazard surveillance methods and determining whether additional
screening methods are needed
• using existing studies to share data and information about
nanotechnology
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Chapter 12
Materials Handling and Storage
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12-1. Rules for Lifting
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DO engineer manual lifting and lowering out of the task and
workplace.
DO be in good physical shape.
DO think before acting.
DO get a good grip on the load.
DO get the load close to the body.
DO NOT twist the back or bend sideways.
DO NOT lift or lower awkwardly.
DO NOT hesitate to get mechanical help or help from another
person.
DO NOT lift with the arms extended.
DO NOT continue lifting when the load is too heavy.
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12-2. Guidelines for Lifting
Two limits are provided based on epidemiological, biomechanical, physiological,
and psychophysical criteria:
1. Maximum Permissible Limit
(MPL) is defined to best meet four
criteria:
• Musculoskeletal injury and severity
rates increase significantly in
populations where work is
performed above MPL
• Biomechanical compression forces
on the spinal discs are not tolerable
over 1,430 lbs (650 kg) in most
workers
• Metabolic rates exceed 5.0 Kcal/min
for most individuals working above
MPL
• About 25% of men and less than 1%
of women have the muscle strength
capable of performing above MPL
©2015 National Safety Council
2. Action Limit (AL)—the large
variability in capacities between
individuals in the population indicates
the need for administrative controls
when conditions exceed this limit
based on:
• Musculoskeletal injury incidence and
severity rates increase moderately in
populations exposed to lifting
conditions described by the AL
• A 770-lb (350 kg) compression force
on the spinal discs can be tolerated by
most young, healthy workers
• Metabolic rates would exceed 3.5 for
most individuals working above AL
• More than 75% of women and more
than 99% of men could lift loads
described by AL
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Chapter 13
Hoisting and Conveying Equipment
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13-1. Unsafe Conditions for Overhead Traveling Cranes
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Bearing: loose, worn
Brakes: shoe wear
Bridge: alignment out of true
(indicated by screeching or
squealing wheels)
Bumpers on bridge: loose,
missing, improper placement of
Collector shoes or bars: worn,
pitted, loose, broken
Controllers: faulty operation
because of electrical or
mechanical defects
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Couplings: loose, worn
Drum: rough edges on cable
grooves
End stops on trolley: loose,
missing, improper placement of
Footwalk: condition
Gears: lack of lubrication or
foreign material in gear teeth
(indicated by grinding or
squealing)
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13-2. Unsafe Conditions for Overhead Traveling Cranes
(Cont.)
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Guards: bent, broken, lost
Hoisting cable: broken wires
Hook block: chipped sheave
wheels
Hooks: straightening
Lights (warning or signal):
burned out, broken
Limit switch: functioning
improperly
Lubrication: overflowing on
rails, dirty cups
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Mechanical parts (rivets, covers,
etc.): Loose
Overload relay: frequent
tripping of power
Rails (trolley or runway):
broken, chipped, cracked
Wheels: worn (indicated by
bumpy riding)
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13-3. Hazards of Aerial Baskets
The most frequent causes of unintentional incidents while using
mobile aerial baskets include the following:
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not observing proper precautions against electrical hazards to
personnel both in the basket and on the ground
improper positioning of vehicle or outriggers, lack of sufficient blocking
under outriggers, or overloading the boom, causing the apparatus to
overturn or fall
overreaching from basket or other improper work procedures
not using proper personal protective equipment, including safety belts
moving the truck while the boom is raised, or moving where there is
inadequate clearance for the boom
structural or mechanical failure, or control jamming
swinging the boom or basket against overhead obstructions or
energized equipment
moving the boom into positions that interfere with traffic
inadequately training personnel
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Chapter 14
Ropes, Chains, and Slings
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14-1. Factors to Consider When Choosing Rope
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14-2. Wire Rope Cross Section
• Wire rope is made from a number of individual wires grouped in
strands, then laid together over a core member (fiber core, an
independent wire core, or strand core).
• The number of wires per strand and the number of strands per
core depend on the expected working conditions and the
amount of flexibility required.
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14-3. Chain Sling Inspections
Chain slings require three types of inspection:
1. Initial inspections—Both new and repaired slings should be
inspected before use to determine
a) that each sling meets the requirements of the purchase order;
b) that it is the correct type and has the proper rated capacity for
the application;
c) that it has not been damaged in shipment, unpacking, or storage.
2. Frequent inspections— The sling should be inspected by the
person handling it each time it is used.
3. Periodic inspections—A semiannual or more frequent inspection
should be performed by a competent person who is experienced in
the inspection of chain slings. The frequency of periodic inspections
should be based on the following factors: frequency of use, severity of
service conditions, and knowledge about the service life of slings used
in present or similar conditions.
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Chapter 15
Powered Industrial Trucks
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15-1. Typical Pallet-Loading Patterns
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15-2. Lift-Truck Maneuvers
A. turning a sharp corner
B. turning across an aisle
C. turning in an exceptionally
narrow aisle
D. turning around in a narrow
passage
A
C
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15-3. Distribution of Load
• (Left diagram) With forks spread wide, the load is well
distributed and tends to bind together.
• (Right diagram) With forks positioned too close together, the
pallet tends to seesaw.
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Chapter 16
Haulage and Off-Road Equipment
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16-1. Safety Components
There are four basic safety components related to haul- age and the
operation of off-road equipment:
• the working environment around the equipment or machine
• the machine itself
• the worker
• the work process
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16-2. General Safety Requirements
Prevent accidents to heavy equipment by:
• maintaining safety features on equipment
• systematically maintaining equipment and making repairs
• training operators
• training repair and maintenance personnel
• training employees
• planning work processes
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16-3. Hand Signals for Flaggers
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Chapter 17
Hand and Portable Power Tools
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17-1. Safety Practices
By observing the following six safety practices, most unintentional
incidents with hand tools and portable power tools can be eliminated.
1. Provide proper protective equipment.
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eye and face protection
hand and arm protection
respiratory protective equipment
hearing protection
2. Select the right tool for the job.
3. Know if a tool is in good condition and keep it in good condition.
4. Properly ground power tools, using a ground-fault circuit
interrupter (GFCI) protected circuit.
5. Use tools correctly.
6. Keep tools in a safe place.
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17-2. Necessary Safety Program Activities
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Train employees to select the right tools.
Establish regular tool inspections.
Train and supervise employees to correctly use tools.
Establish a procedure to control company tools.
Provide proper storage areas.
Enforce the use of proper personal protective equipment.
Plan each job well in advance.
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17-3. Inspection Checklist for Portable Electric Tools
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17-4. Types of Hammers
Hammers are made in different shapes and sizes, with different
configurations and varying degrees of hardness. Each hammer has a
specific purpose.
Types of Hammers
• common nail hammers
• nail hammers
• ball peen hammers
• sledgehammers
• hand-drilling hammers
• bricklayer’s hammers
• riveting and setting
hammers
©2015 National Safety Council
• other hammers
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scaling
chipping
soft-face
nonferrous
magnetic
engineer’s
blacksmith’s
spalling hammers
woodchopper’s mauls
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17-5. Basic Rules for Selecting and Using Hammers
• Always wear eye protection
• Always strike a hammer blow squarely-avoid glancing blows,
overstrikes, and understrikes.
• When striking another tool, the striking face of the hammer
should have a diameter approximately 3/8-inch larger than the
struck face of the tool.
• Always use a hammer of suitable size and weight for the job.
• Never use a hammer to strike another hammer.
• Never use a hard-surface hammer to strike another harder
surface.
• Never use a hammer with a loose or damaged handle.
• Discard any hammer if it shows dents, cracks, chips,
mushrooming, or excessive wear.
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Chapter 18
Woodworking Machinery
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18-1. Rules for Safe Operation of Woodworking Tools
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18-2. Rules for Safe Operation of Woodworking Tools
(Cont.)
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18-3. Minimizing Hazards in Saw Operation
• All saws pose potential hazards for operators. Safety and health
professionals can minimize these hazards by
– providing training for operators
– ensuring that all machinery is properly guarded
– making sure that all ANSI, NFPA, and government regulations are
followed
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Chapter 19
Welding and Cutting
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19-1. Pulmonary Irritants and Toxic Inhalants
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©2015 National Safety Council
beryllium
cadmium
chromium
copper
fluoride
lead
magnesium
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manganese
mercury
molybdenum
nickel
titanium
vanadium
zinc
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19-2. Protective Clothing for Welders
• flame-resistant gauntlet gloves—leather or other suitable
material (may be insulated for heat)
• aprons made of leather or other flame-resistant material to
withstand radiated heat and sparks
• for heavy work, fire-resistant leggings, high boots, or similar
protection
• safety shoes, whenever heavy objects are handled (because of
spark hazard, avoid using low-cut shoes with unprotected tops)
• for overhead work, capes or shoulder covers of leather or other
suitable material. Skull caps of leather or flame-resistant fabric
may be worn under helmets to prevent head burns. Also, for
overhead welding, ear protection is sometimes desirable.
• safety hats or other head protection against sharp or heavy
falling objects
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Chapter 20
Metalworking Machinery
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20-1. Rules for Safely Operating Machine Tools
The following rules apply to safely operating any machine tool. Be
sure that operators know and follow these rules:
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Never leave machine tools running
unattended, unless the machine has
been designed to do so.
Never wear jewelry or loose-fitting
clothing, especially loose sleeves,
loose shirt or jacket cuffs, and
neckties.
Cover or tie long hair that could be
caught by moving parts.
Wear eye protection. This rule
extends to others in the area, such
as inspectors, stock handlers, and
supervisors.
Do not contaminate the metal
removal fluid (e.g., discard refuse or
spit into the tool’s coolant sump or
reservoir). This action can create a
chemical imbalance.
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Do not manually adjust and gauge
(caliper) work while the machine is
running.
Use brushes, vacuum equipment, or
special tools for removing chips. Do
not use hands.
Understand the differences in
machining ferrous and nonferrous
metals, and know the health or fire
hazards of working with these
metals.
Use the proper hand tools for each
job.
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20-2. Grinder Checklist
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Chapter 21
Working with Hot and Cold Metals
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21-1. Point of Operation Safeguarding Devices
• Fixed Die-Enclosure Guards—provide the most complete
protection for the operator because the die is completely
enclosed and the guard is a permanent part of it
• Fixed-Barrier Guards—should be attached to the frame of
the press or to the bolster plate
• Interlocked Press-Barrier Guards—provide ready access to
the die because they are designed with a pivoting, sliding, or
removable section
• Adjustable-Barrier Guards—may be used when a dieenclosure guard or fixed-barrier guard is too time consuming to
use, impractical, or both
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21-2. Procedure for Removing Dies
1. Make sure the work space is
cleared of all stock, containers,
tools, and other items.
2. Disconnect the power and lock
out the switch.
3. Dismantle or disconnect the
point-of-operation safety
devices.
4. Clean off the bolster plate.
5. If the die is to be operated with
an air pad, shut off the air
supply and open release valve.
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6. Remove bolts and clamps
holding the die in place.
7. Ensure that the die is loose.
8. Raise the arm slowly.
9. Block the ram in its highest
position.
10. Place the die truck close to the
press and ensure that the truck
is stable.
11. Inspect, repair, and protect dies
before storing them.
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21-3. Types of Power Press Brakes
General Purpose—operated by one individual with a single
operating control station
• mechanical press brakes
• hydraulic press brakes
Special Purpose—operated by one or more operators. Each
operator should have a control station appropriate to the
piece-part production system in use
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21-4. Maintenance Checklist for Steam Hammers
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21-5. Nondestructive Testing Methods
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
magnetic particle inspection
penetrant inspection
ultrasonic methods
triboelectric method
electromagnetic tests
radiography
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Chapter 22
Automated Lines, Systems, or Processes
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22-1. Flowchart for Hazard and/or Risk Assessment
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22-2. 10 Rules for Safe Chemical Processing Operations
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Chapter 23
The Computer as a Safety Information Tool
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23-1. Uses of Electronic Information by the
SH&E Professional
1. As a reference tool—provides a less expensive and less time
consuming way to keep track of rapidly changing regulations and
technologies
2. As a networking tool—provides quick access to technical issues in
specific fields, tips on how to approach specific problems, identifies
prospective partners and/or consultants
3. As a safety culture tool—an organization’s website may provide for
online training, a reference library, and a way to provide safety
awareness
4. As an safety program management tool—enables data from
specific environmental sampling instruments to be collected, organized,
and managed effectively and efficiently
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Chapter 24
Process Safety Management
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24-1. Basic PSM Programs
When developing a PSM program, management should consider:
• Incident-prevention objectives
• existing employer and contractor PSM programs
• use of internal resources versus outside consultants
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24-2. Four Types of Process
Safety Compliance Inspections
1. Inspections Resulting from Responses to Accidents and
Catastrophes
2. Unprogrammed Process Safety Management-Related
Inspections
3. Programmed General Industry Inspections
4. Program Quality Verification Inspections
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Chapter 25
Aviation Safety
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25-1. The Federal Aviation Administration
Responsibilities
FAA’s responsibilities include:
• Register aircraft
• Issue air-worthiness certifications
• Approve aircraft designs and productions
• Authority over airports in the form of regulating:
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safety
environmental programs
engineering design and construction
airport compliance
runway safety
fire fighting
safety management systems
wildlife strike prevention
administers air traffic control services through its operational arm
provide data and research to the public and the aviation industry
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25-2. Federal Aviation Administration
Responsibilities (Cont.)
• Provide data and research to the public and the aviation
industry
• Office of Accident Investigation and Prevention
– provides preliminary accident and incident data for the
previous 10 working days accident and incident reports
• Aviation Safety Information Analysis and Sharing (ASIAS)
system
• Oversee the certification types for airmen, aircraft, airlines,
airports, and commercial outer space transportation
• Offer training and testing programs
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25.3. Elements Crucial to an
Aviation Safety Management System (SMS)
• Safety and policy objectives—a formal safety policy signed
by senior management and including top level commitments to
implementing the SMS
• Safety risk management (SRM)—a five-stage process that
identifies hazards and potential risks and encourages the design
of risk mitigation strategies
• Safety assurance—policies that address auditing, oversight,
and correction of discrepancies with input, review, and feedback
from multiple sources
• Safety promotion—all aspects and levels of safety-related
education and communication within an organization, which
directs resources toward the goals of continuous improvement
set forth by the formal safety policy
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Chapter 26
Oil and Gas Safety
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26-1. Three Segments of the Oil Industry
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26-2. Four Elements of the Hazard Management Process
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26-3. Safety and Health Hazard Categories
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Chapter 27
Waste and Recycling Safety
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27-1. Three Groups of Solid Waste Industry
1. Collection
2. Treatment and disposal
3. Other waste remediation services
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27-2. EPA Requirements for Landfill Design and Operation
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Location restrictions—ensure that landfills are built in suitable areas.
Composite liner requirements—include a flexible membrane overlaying 2 ft
of compacted clay soil lining the bottom and sides of the landfill.
Leachate collection and removal systems—sit on top of the composite liner
and remove leachate from the landfill.
Operating practices—compact and cover waste frequently with several inches
of soil to help reduce odor; control litter, insects, and rodents.
Groundwater monitoring requirements—require testing groundwater wells
to determine whether waste materials have escaped from the landfill.
Closure and postclosure care requirements—include covering landfills and
providing long-term care of closed landfills.
Corrective action provisions—control and clean up landfill releases and
achieve groundwater protection standards.
Financial assurance—provides funding for environmental protection during
and after landfill closure (i.e., closure and postclosure care).
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27-3. Exposure to Potentially Hazardous Equipment
• Waste and recycling workers often complete tasks in close
proximity to a variety of hazards, including heavy equipment
and machinery with moving parts such as conveyor belts, push
blades, balers, and compactors. To reduce hazards:
– Facility operators should develop an employee equipment
orientation program and establish safety programs to minimize the
risk of injury.
– Use lockout/tagout systems.
– Implement and strictly enforce rules requiring that visiting children
and pets remain in the vehicle at all times.
– Post signs and apply brightly colored paint or tape to hazards
alerting customers to potential dangers.
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