5 Discussion
5.1 Level of current impact on the environment
While knowledge gaps exist in relation to a number of pathways and stressors (eg organic
toxicants), based on current scientific knowledge, there is no evidence to suggest that any of
these pathways are resulting in adverse ecological impacts on the off-site environment within
the ARR (ie outside of the Ranger mining lease) during the operational mining phase at RUM.
Subtle biological responses of freshwater snails observed in in situ toxicity monitoring tests
in Magela and Gulungul Creeks downstream of the mine (ie enhancement of egg production)
continue to be investigated (Humphrey et al 2013). Macroinvertebrate communities in
Georgetown Billabong appear to have been adversely affected since 2009 by increased
concentrations of MgSO4 arising from the mine. This billabong, however, lies within the mine
lease and in close proximity to the minesite.
Notwithstanding the lack of evidence of adverse off-site impacts, there is an ongoing need to
provide reassurance to key stakeholders and the broader community in relation to the actual
nature and level of risks posed to the environment by current uranium mining activities and
how the various mitigation measures being implemented by the mine operator are effectively
reducing these risks to acceptable levels. The conceptual sub-models and narratives will assist
in this ongoing task.
5.2 Existing and emerging knowledge needs
As a result of this work, a number of and new/emerging knowledge needs for various stressor
pathways associated with the operational mining phase at RUM were identified. Most of the
existing knowledge needs have been identified as a result of recent research and monitoring,
and are included in ARRTC’s 2008-2010 KKNs document.
New and emerging knowledge needs are listed in Tables 5.1 and 5.2. For example, there is
currently limited knowledge regarding the extent to which various organic toxicants on the
minesite, particularly hydrocarbons and volatile organic compounds, may be transported off
the mine site by surface water and groundwater pathways, and also the potential effects of
these toxicants on biological receptors. The mine operator undertakes only extremely limited
measurements of organic toxicants as part of current surface and groundwater quality
monitoring on the mine site, while the Supervising Scientist Division has never monitored
these toxicants. There has also been little work undertaken on possible effects of organic
toxicants on biota. Areas of significant organic contamination (mainly hydrocarbons) are
known to occur on the mine site (Hollingsworth et al 2005). While issues such as soil
contamination on the mine site are generally seen as being more relevant to the mine
rehabilitation phase, there could be potential for organic toxicants from these areas to be
transported off the mine site by various pathways during the operational mining phase, and
this may warrant further investigation. Table 5.3 summarises the information collated in
Tables 1 and 2, and the knowledge gaps detailed in Section 4 on a KKN (current operations
phase KKNs only) basis.
A further emerging knowledge need identified during this work relates to the determination of
potential impacts of ionizing radiation on non-human biota within the ARR. While previous
work has been undertaken by the Supervising Scientist in relation to the bioaccumulation of
radionuclides in mussels and other fauna and flora, this work has mainly focused on potential
ingestion doses to human receptors. Historically, radiation protection has focused on impacts
146
to workers and relevant off-site human receptors. However, there has been a move away from
radiation protection being solely anthropocentric and it is now accepted that there is a need to
demonstrate that non-human biota are protected against ionizing radiation risks from
radionuclides released to the environment by human activities including mining. This has
been recognized internationally by the International Commission on Radiological Protection
(ICRP 2007, 2009) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA) 2006, Howard et al 2012), and nationally by the Australian Radiation
Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) (Doering 2010). The need to better
understand the potential impacts on biota associated with mine-derived radionuclides within
the ARR has also been recognised by the Supervising Scientist (International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA) 2003) and more recently by ARRTC. An ongoing research project is
examining the existing flora and fauna data for their fitness of use for environmental radiation
dose assessment. In addition, the ARPANSA and the Supervising Scientist Division are
jointly examining the implications of the need to demonstrate that the environment is
protected from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation in an Australian context.
A number of new knowledge needs were also identified in relation to the transport of weed
propagules via surface water, atmospheric and human and non-human pathways. Weeds are a
key issue for the operational mining phase as well as the post-mining (including rehabilitation)
phases. The mine operator undertakes regular chemical control measures to limit the spread of
weeds on the mine lease as well as annual surveys of the distribution and density of a number of
priority weed species on the mine lease. Currently, however, there are no quantitative data on
the spread of weed propagules either to or off the mine lease by the various transport pathways.
The ongoing management of weeds on the mine lease is an important issue for both the
operational and post-mining phases, and in particular, for the establishment of the final
landform and associated ecosystem development.
It is anticipated that these existing and new knowledge needs will be assessed as part of the
review and revision of the ARRTC knowledge needs scheduled for 2012-13. Johnston &
Milnes (2007) addressed six key issues when reviewing the mine-related research required to
ensure protection of the environment throughout the operational and rehabilitation phases of
mining at RUM. These issues were:

Baseline research

Surface water management

Dispersion in groundwater

Atmospheric dispersion

Rehabilitation (physical components including surface hydrology, erosion and the
dispersion of erosion products)

Revegetation
These key issues may potentially form the framework for modelling the pathways for the
decommissioning and post-decommissioning phases of RUM. Radionuclide uptake by
terrestrial animals and plants was identified in particular by Johnston and Milnes (2007) as a
knowledge gap. Since then, the database on radionuclide uptake in terrestrial biota (the BRUCE
tool) has been developed and the number of records significantly increased, which will enable
the modelling of ingestion doses during the rehabilitation phase (Doering et al 2012).
147
5.3 Collation of information, and updating models and
knowledge needs
Collation of information from disparate sources was problematic during this project. Some
information is in the ‘grey literature’ and studies undertaken by the mine that are not for
public release. As a result, these types of information have largely not been taken into
account, primarily due to the time and effort required to collate and document such
information. Where information gaps were identified, a request was sent to ERA for
information to address the gaps. For future conceptual models, screening ecological risk
assessments and KKN review, a database of all literature relevant to each pathway and
stressor should be developed and maintained in collaboration with ERA.
As management practices change in an operational mine or post-mining landscape over time,
conceptual models will become outdated. Similarly, as more research becomes available for
pathways, stressors or receptors for which there were knowledge gaps, conceptual model
updates may be required if key components are to change or the rationale needs to be
reviewed (USEPA 1998). Further, additional sub-models may be required if key risks
change. The spatial and temporal scale at which the conceptual models are developed will
also determine whether updates are required. With increasing detail and numerous sub-models
(as provided through this project) updates will be required more frequently if management
practices change, compared with a higher level conceptual model. Since the commencement
of this project on-site management at Ranger has changed, resulting in potential changes to
stressor pathways.
Conceptual models may be used to assess knowledge needs and establish research
frameworks. This project has used conceptual models of stressor pathways and the ranking of
importance of these pathways to undertake a gap analysis on the KKNs related to the
operational phase of the minesite (Table 5.3). A similar process to identify knowledge needs
for the post-mining phases of RUM should be undertaken and reviewed regularly as
environmental conditions and management conditions change. It is suggested that the
currency of the conceptual models for post-mining be a standing agenda item at ARRTC on
an annual basis to ensure the research framework is adequately addressing knowledge needs.
148
Table 5.1 Gaps in knowledge about the importance of stressor-pathway combinations. ‘‘ and ‘‘ denote knowledge gaps associated with moderate uncertainty and high
uncertainty in knowledge, respectively (summarised from Table 4.1).
Stressors
Inorganic toxicants
Organic toxicants
Radionuclides
Pathways

Surface water to surface water
Airborne emissions

Stormwater runoff from non-mine site areas
of the lease

Airborne dust and other particulates




Radon-222 and
decay products or
progeny
Transported
sediments
Weed propagules




Exhalation and atmospheric transport of
radon-222 and decay products
149
Surface water to groundwater

Human and non-human vectors

Land Application Areas infiltration and runoff
Bioaccumulation and trophic transfer
 (terrestrial)
NB: shaded cells represent combinations of stressors and pathways that do not occur.



Table 5.2 Gaps in knowledge about the ecological impacts of stressor-pathway combinations. ‘‘ denotes a knowledge gap (summarised from Table 4.1).
Stressors
Inorganic toxicants
Organic toxicants
Radionuclides
Pathways
 (biota)
Surface water to surface water
Airborne emissions
Radon-222 and
decay products or
progeny

Weed propagules



Stormwater runoff from non-mine site areas
of the lease
Airborne dust and other particulates
Transported
sediments



 (biota)
Exhalation and atmospheric transport of
Radon-222 and decay products or progeny
Surface water to groundwater
150
Human and non-human vectors

 (biota)
Land Application Areas infiltration and runoff
Bioaccumulation and trophic transfer
NB: shaded cells represent combinations of stressors and pathways that do not occur.
 (biota)

 (terrestrial)

Table 5.3 Gap analysis of Key Knowledge Needs for operational phase of RUM
Phase
Section
Key Knowledge Need
Status of knowledge
1.1.1 Surface water
transport of
radionuclides
Adequate knowledge - water quality monitoring for radionuclides and the monitoring of
radionuclide activity concentration in fish, mussels and bush foods is routinely conducted.
Based on scientific research conducted over the past 30 years by the Supervising Scientist,
the mine operator and others, a significant body of knowledge has been developed in
relation to the main sources, transport mechanisms, and potential environmental risks
associated with key mine-derived radionuclides via the surface water pathway.
Knowledge Gaps:
There is the need to explicitly include and assess the risk from ionising radiation to nonhuman biota, using existing SSD data.
Adequate knowledge - Although airborne emissions of radionuclides other than uranium
are not monitored directly, current air quality monitoring by SSD and ERA and ongoing
research provide a high level of scientific certainty that radionuclides transported off-site via
this pathway are not resulting in a detectable adverse effect on the environment in the ARR.
1 Ranger –
Current
operations
1.1 Reassess
existing threats
151
1.1.2 Atmospheric
transport of
radionuclides
Based on ongoing research, monitoring and associated modelling by both eriss and ERA,
there is a high degree of scientific certainty that the radon-222 and radon decay products
pathways are not resulting in adverse impacts on the environment or human health in the
ARR.
The monitoring of radon and dust exposure pathways has shown that the only significant
contribution to radiological exposure of the public at Jabiru via inhalation is the inhalation of
radon decay products. Although the contribution from the mine site has been shown
consistently to be much less than the public dose constraint of 0.3 mSv per year and is of
no concern according to current best practice standards, atmospheric monitoring will
continue to provide re-assurance to the public that the risk from inhalation of mine-derived
radionuclides remains very low.
Phase
Section
Key Knowledge Need
Status of knowledge
1.2.1 Ecological risks
via the surface water
pathway
Adequate knowledge and further addressed through this project.
1.2 Ongoing
operational
issues
152
1.2.2 Land irrigation
Knowledge gaps:
There is currently no direct monitoring of weed propagule transport via the surface water to
surface water pathway, stormwater runoff from non-mine site areas of the lease pathway,
human and non-human vectors pathway, or from mine site waterbodies. Annual weed
surveys by the mine operator provide data on the distribution and density of weeds on the
mine lease. However, little if any data exist on the volume of weed propagules present in
the seed bank on the mine lease or the quantity of weed progagules being transported on
and off the mine lease via various pathways.
Other knowledge gaps listed below relate to this KKN also.
Adequate knowledge - ongoing surface water and groundwater quality and biological
monitoring indicate with a high degree of scientific certainty that inorganic toxicants and
radionuclides transported via the Land Application Areas infiltration and runoff pathway are
not resulting in detectable adverse environmental impacts in the ARR.
1.2.3 Wetland filters
No knowledge gaps were identified through this assessment.
1.2.4 Ecotoxicology
Knowledge gaps:
There is limited knowledge regarding the potential effects of suspended particulate matter
on the biota within surface water systems downstream of the mine site. A field research
project is underway to assess the indirect effects of turbidity on phytoplankton communities
in Georgetown Billabong. However further quantitative data for other taxa groups are
required.
1.2.5 Mass balances
and annual load limits
Adequate knowledge - mass solute balance model and review of annual statutory load
limits for key mine derived inorganic toxicants has been developed (Turner & Jones 2010).
Phase
Section
Key Knowledge Need
Status of knowledge
1.3.1 Surface water,
groundwater,
chemical, biological,
sediment, radiological
monitoring
Adequate knowledge - Turner and Jones (2010) confirmed with a high degree of
confidence that the routine water quality and bioaccumulation sampling programs conducted
by SSD in Magela and Gulungul Creeks are not omitting any metals that could potentially be
of concern from either toxicological or bioaccumulation perspectives.
Although toxicants entering surface waters from non-mine areas of the lease are not directly
measured/monitored, the comprehensive surface water quality and biological monitoring
programs in Magela Creek and Gulungul Creek incorporate potential inputs from the
inorganic toxicants potential transport through the stormwater runoff from non-mine site
areas of the lease pathway.
Knowledge gap:
The limited chemical monitoring of organic toxicants means that the level of scientific
certainty regarding the actual levels of organic toxicants in the surface and groundwater
systems downstream of the mine site is relatively low.
- The mine operator only undertakes measurements of total petroleum hydrocarbons
in RP2 as part of its on-site surface and ground water monitoring program.
However, it has undertaken several studies of contamination, including organic
toxicants, in soil and groundwater around the plant area.
1.3 Monitoring
153
6 Summary
The main objective of this project was to assess eriss’s knowledge base in relation to stressor
pathways applicable to the operational phase at RUM, and in doing so, produce a gap analysis
which can inform future KKN reviews. A secondary objective of this work, providing a
screening level assessment of the importance of stressor pathways, is to support the future
development of a risk-based framework which could be used to prioritise future eriss minerelated research and monitoring.
Key to this project was the review and collation of current scientific knowledge of stressor
pathways associated with uranium mining at RUM including the results of past and current
scientific research and monitoring undertaken by the Supervising Scientist, ERA and others.
The knowledge base within eriss dates back to 1978. Collation and review of the associated
material (reports and scientific papers) and eriss researchers’ understanding of stressor
pathways relevant to their disciplines of study was a significant component of this project.
In finalising the stressor pathways conceptual model for the operational mining phase at
RUM, a number of tasks were undertaken:

The stressor pathways conceptual model and associated sub-models for the
operational phase of mining at RUM developed by van Dam et al (2004) and refined
by van Dam and Bayliss (2010) were reviewed and updated. This review resulted in
the identification of 32 sub-models for stressors and their associated pathways. Nine
pathways (i. Surface water to surface water; ii. airborne emissions; iii. radon-222 and
radon decay products; iv. stormwater runoff from non-mine site areas of the lease; v.
airborne dust and other particulates; vi. surface water to groundwater; vii. human and
non-human vectors; viii. LAA infiltration and runoff; and ix. Bioaccumulation and
trophic transfer) and five stressors (inorganic toxicants, organic toxicants,
radionuclides, transported sediments and weed propagules) were identified.

Sub-models for the 32 stressor pathways were developed. This involved a significant
change from the conceptual models developed by van Dam and Bayliss (2006). A
3-D perspective of the conceptual landscape of RUM was constructed. This enabled
the direction of stressors from source through the environment to relevant biological
receptors to be shown. Additionally, groundwater was added as an environmental
compartment in the models.

Supporting narratives for each stressor pathway sub-model were compiled which:
describe the various model elements and their relationships and linkages to current
chemical and biological monitoring activities; and document current scientific
knowledge, certainty, level of impact and associated knowledge gaps.

A screening level assessment of the importance of each stressor pathway was
completed. Each stressor pathway sub-model was assessed in terms of its inherent
environmental risks based on the size (volume/rate of release) of stressor sources on
the mine site and the maximum (load) capacity of pathway mechanisms to transport
these into the offsite environment.
Five of the 31 stressor pathway sub-models were assessed as being of high
importance during the operational phase of mining (inorganic toxicants surface water
to surface water pathway; inorganic toxicants airborne emissions pathway;
radionuclides surface water to surface water pathway; radon-222 and radon decay
products pathway; and transported sediments surface water to surface water
154
pathway). For four of these five pathways the available comprehensive monitoring
data indicate no detectable impact on the environment outside of the mining lease.
For the case of the remaining pathway (inorganic stressors- airborne emissions) and
impact on biota from the radon-222 and radon decay products pathway it was judged
that there was insufficient evidence to say that there was no measurable
environmental impact.
A gap analysis of eriss’s knowledge base in relation to stressor pathways and KKN
framework was carried out. The assessment identified some knowledge gaps which
may be fed into the ARRTC KKN framework following further consideration. Key
amongst these was a lack of knowledge about the fate of organic contaminants, for
example, hydrocarbons and pesticides used on site; and inorganic contaminants from
the mine site stacks, storage tanks and pipes. The specific issue for the organics is that
these species have not been analysed, even at a screening level, in the water that exits
the site. Hence no specific assessment can be made about potential for impact, despite
this likely being a no or low impact issue. In the case of the inorganic contaminants,
emissions from the stacks are monitored by ERA. One additional factor that could
also warrant closer attention is the potential for transport of weeds off site, despite the
existence of an active weed identification and control program.

The range of relevant mitigation measures implemented by ERA to control and
reduce potential risks to receptors associated with these stressor pathways was
included in each sub-model narrative.
While knowledge gaps exist for some pathways and stressors, there is no evidence to suggest
that any of these pathways are currently resulting in adverse ecological impacts on the
environment within the ARR. Results of ongoing chemical, radiological and biological
monitoring undertaken by the Supervising Scientist continue to show that the environment of
the ARR remains protected from uranium mining related impacts via the aquatic pathway (the
dominant potential vector) and from airborne radionuclides in the case of human health
protection.
The stressor pathways conceptual models developed by this project, and the associated risk
analysis, will assist in communicating the actual level of significance of these pathways to
key stakeholders.
A related but separate task will be to develop models of the stressor pathways uniquely
associated with the mine closure and rehabilitation phases of mine life. This closure pathways
conceptual model will inform and assist the development of closure criteria and the specifying
of the monitoring framework needed to address them.
155
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