MLS 570
Critical Thinking
Reading Notes
Fogelin: Ch. 1
Fall Term 2006
North Central College
Dr. Sally Fowler
THE WEB OF LANGUAGE


Language & Argument
 LANGUAGE is a shared set of conventions that
allow us to communicate.
 An ARGUMENT is
 Giving reasons for or against some claim
 And also a linguistic activity that we can only
do with words.
Language & Convention
 Language is conventional, but not arbitrary.
 The meaning of what we say is dependent on
convention, but the truth of what we say is not.
Levels of Language

Linguistic Acts


Semantic conventions give meaning to individual words
Syntactic conventions lay down rules for combining
words into meaningful wholes.
.
FOR DISCUSSION:
 When someone hums a tune, do they perform a
linguistic act? Why or why not?
 Can a speaker mispronounce something without
performing a linguistic act? Why or why not?
SPEECH ACTS

Performatives: are sentences that actually DO
something.



Rather than stating something these sentences bring
something about
The words themselves effect a CHANGE
[umpire/minister/judge]
Explicit Performatives


Must pass the “thereby test”
In saying “I--------, I thereby -------.
In addition the context of the utterance must be
appropriate.
Explicit Performatives [continued …]

Examples: “I promise to meet you tomorrow at 10am.”
 “BUT I’ll meet you tomorrow” is not a
performative as it may be a prediction that could
be false and it also doesn’t pass the “thereby test”
[ You would still have to actually MEET them]
 “I bid $60.” [said at an auction]
 BUT “I bid $60 on eBay for the ring” is not a
performative as it is a statement of something you
already did and doesn’t pass the “thereby test”
“I apologize” is a performative.
“I am sorry” is NOT a performative.
ex I, II, III[6e] do together
Speech Acts II


Speech Acts are a level of language distinct from
linguistic acts where, rather than stating an idea or
making a claim, we in fact do what the verb says
through our speaking.
Examples:
promising
resigning
swearing
apologizing refusing
stating asserting
describing
questioning concluding
 Hawkins vs. McGee – How would you settle
case?
 Rhode Island vs. Innis – were those “speech
acts of interrogation”?
.
Speech Act Rules:
What you need to ask
Must a person have a special position in order to
perform the speech act? Examples?
2.
What facts are presupposed in the use of the speech
act? Examples?
3.
Is any response or uptake needed to complete the
speech act? Examples?
4.
What feelings and beliefs is the person performing
the speech act expected to have? Examples?
Ex IV [6e] [sg] & DiscussionQuest. – together.
1.
Conversational Acts
What is the Connection between Speech
Acts and Conversational Acts



Example: “We often urge people to do things in
order to persuade then to do these things.”
 Urge is the Speech Act. If you urge someone you
have, thereby, in fact urged them.
 Persuade is the effect you hope your urging will
have. It is the Conversational Act.
Distinguishing between speech and conversational
acts -- Ex V [6e] together
What are some examples of related speech acts and
conversational acts? [sg]
Conversational Rules I
1.
Rule of Quantity:
a. Make your contribution as informative as is
required for the exchange at hand.
b. Do not make your contribution more informative
than required.
2.
Rule of Quality:
a. Do not say what you believe to be false
b. Do not say that for which you have inadequate
evidence.
Conversational Rules II
1.
Rule of Relevance:
Clear-cut violations usually involve changing the
subject
2.
Rule of Manner:
a. Avoid obscurity of expression
b. Avoid ambiguity
c. Be brief
d. Be orderly
Conversational Implication



Conversational Implication is when we convey
information without actually saying it.
Based on cultural and linguistic experience, we are
able to respond to the implications of a statement
rather than its literal meaning.
Ex VI [6e] – What are the conversational
implications of these statements?
Can you create several exchanges where the
question as been taken literally rather that for
what it implies?
Violations of the Conversational Rules




Occur in rhetorical usage to create an effect.
Among those uses are:
 Overstatement: He hit the ball a mile
 Understatement: A plane crash could ruin your
day.
 Metaphor: George Washington is the father of
our country.
 Simile: Jon is like horse
Violating conversational rules: Ex VII & VIII [6e]
together
Deception: Bronstein case.
Summary of Ch. 1
There are three levels of language, each with their own
governing rules.
1.
Linguistic Acts: Semantic & Syntactic rules
[conventions]
2.
Speech Acts: Rules about special agents,
circumstances, facts and feelings [diverse uses]
3.
Conversational Acts: The Cooperative Principle;
Rules of Quantity, Quality, Relevance & Manner
[what is implied]