Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
The Study of Human Development
Developmental psychology
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
• Examines physical, cognitive, and socioemotional change
The Study of Human Development
THREE DEBATES
• Stages or continuity
•
Sensitive and critical periods
• Hereditary and environmental influences
•
Nature and nurture
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
• Stability and change
CNRI / Science Source
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
CHROMOSOMES, DNA, AND GENES
Every cell in your body, except red blood cells and sex cells (sperm or
egg), contains a full set of 23 chromosome pairs. These 23
chromosome pairs contain the full blueprint for you as a complete,
unique person. The primary component of each chromosome is a
single, tightly wound molecule of DNA. Within that DNA are around
21,000 genes, each determining specific traits.
Genetics, Conception, and
Prenatal Development
CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
How exactly did you get your genes from your
biological parents?
•
Genes are found in chromosomes.
•
Chromosomes inherited from biological parents.
•
Sperm and egg both contain 23 chromosomes = 23
pairs.
•
Twenty-third chromosome pair determines genetic sex.
•
XX = female; XY = male
Genetics, Conception, and
Prenatal Development
FROM ZYGOTE TO EMBRYO TO FETUS
Zygote
• Is single cell formed by union of sperm cell and egg
• Travels down fallopian tube while dividing into more cells
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Multiples
•
Monozygotic twins develop from one egg inseminated
at conception.
•
Dizygotic twins occur when two eggs are inseminated
by two different sperm.
Genetics, Conception, and
Prenatal Development
Anatomical
Travelogue/Science Source
Germinal Period (Conception to end of 2nd week)
Neil Bromhall / Science
Source
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Omikron/Science Source
• Implanting in uterine wall; rapid growth
Embryo Period (3rd to 8th week)
• Cell differentiation; formation of major organs and systems
begin
• Heart begins to beat; spinal cord and intestinal systems
develop by end of period
Fetal Period (2nd month to birth)
• Rapid weight gain; clear sleep-wake cycles; all organs,
systems, and structures fully developed at birth
• Brain weight one-quarter of adult size
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Prenatal Development and Periods
of Critical Growth
Genetics, Conception, and
Prenatal Development
Teratogens
• Embryo not protected from all environmental
dangers.
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
• Teratogens can damage a zygote, embryo, or
fetus.
• Damage depends on the agent, timing, and
duration of exposure.
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
The photograph
at left shows the
brain of an infant
girl who died at 6
weeks. The
mother was
categorized as a
chronic
alcoholic. The
child’s head
circumference
was 27
centimeters at
birth and did not
grow at all
during her 6
weeks of life
(normal head
circumference is
approximately
35 centimeters about 13 and 3/4
inches).
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
 Male infant born at term and died at 10 weeks due to a sudden cardiac arrest (see
picture at right). The mother's alcohol drinking included up to a gallon of wine at a
time several times a week. The child had hydrocephalus (excess water in the brain)
and typical facial features of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). The cerebellum (which
controls coordination and movement) was "extremely small and poorly shaped (see
picture at right)." The brainstem (responsible for processes such as breathing and
body temperature) was also grossly malformed.
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Child with FAS, illustrating many features in the drawing. Such children may also
have cardiovascular and limb defects.
Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development
Lithium
Lead
LSD
Cocaine
Mercury
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Caffeine
Alcohol
Nicotine
Can you identify
the potential
effects of each
of these
teratogens?
Radiation
exposure
Infancy and Child Development
Synaptic pruning
• Increase in neural connections is not uniform in brain
•
Unused synaptic connections eliminated
•
Decrease in neural connection by 40 to 50 percent by
puberty
Rosenzweig’s rats
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
• Rosenzweig and colleagues demonstrate how environment
influences animal brain development.
• Rats with enriched environment experienced greater
increases in brain weight and synaptic connections.
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Infancy and Child Development
PIAGET AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Schema
• Collection of ideas that represent a basic unit of
understanding
Assimilation
• Using existing information and ideas to understand
new knowledge and experiences
Accommodation
• Restructuring of old ideas to make a place for new
information
Child playing peekaboo, ˝ Peter Polak/Fotolia.com; Child playing vet with Teddy bear, ˝ Gina Sanders/Fotolia.com; Object permanence test,
Doug Goodman/Science Source; Blocks silo, Thinkstock; Teenage girl writing on chalkboard, Creatas/Thinkstock; Young Asian boy pouring
cooking oil into cake batter, iStockphoto/Thinkstock; Hands open, iStockphoto/Thinkstock; Piaget Conservation-Girl with milk glasses,
Bianca Moscatelli/Worth Publishers
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Assessing Child’s Stage of Cognitive
Development
Child playing peekaboo, ˝ Peter Polak/Fotolia.com; Child playing vet with Teddy bear, ˝ Gina Sanders/Fotolia.com; Object permanence test, Doug Goodman/Science Source; Blocks silo, Thinkstock; Teenage girl writing on
chalkboard, Creatas/Thinkstock; Young Asian boy pouring cooking oil into cake batter, iStockphoto/Thinkstock; Hands open, iStockphoto/Thinkstock; Piaget Conservation-Girl with milk glasses, Bianca Moscatelli/Worth Publishers
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Infancy and Child Development
ATTACHMENT
Attachment
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
•
Degree to which infant feels emotional connection with
primary caregivers
Attachment
Freud
Baby attaches to mother because mom provides oral
stimulation
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Attachment is due to feeding only.
Infancy and Child Development
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Erikson
•
Proposed human development marked by eight
psychological stages from infancy to old age
•
Suggested each stage marked by developmental task
or emotional crisis to be resolved
•
Unsuccessful resolution results in difficulty at next stage
Infancy and Child Development
ERIKSON’S EIGHT STAGES
Trust versus mistrust
Identity versus role confusion
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Intimacy versus Isolation
Check Table 8.2 for a discussion of each stage
and its positive and negative resolutions.
Erikson
Trust vs. mistrust
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Birth to 1 year
Harry Harlow
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Harry and Margaret Harlow found that contact
comfort forms the basis of attachment in
rhesus monkeys
Mary Ainsworth
The Strange Situation
Human infants exhibit separation anxiety and
stranger anxiety once attachment has formed, at
about 6 to 8 months of age
Separation anxiety
• fear and distress shown when parent leaves
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Stranger anxiety
• fear of strangers
Secure attachment
Use mother as a secure base for exploring
Distressed by separation from caregivers, greet
caregivers when they return
More cooperative and content than other infants
Display better social skills as preschool children
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Insecure Avoidant attachment
Not responsive to mother, not troubled when she
leaves
May actively avoid contact with mother after
separation
Insecure Ambivalent attachment
Seek close contact with mother, and tend not to branch
out and explore
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
After separation, may display anger toward mother; not
easily comforted
Adolescence
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Adolescence
Puberty
Menarche
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Spermarche
Adolescence
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Timing and effects of maturation
•
Early maturing girls: More negative outcomes; social
anxiety, higher risk of emotional problems and
unhealthy and delinquent behaviors; lower selfconfidence
•
Early maturing boys: Generally a more positive
experience; however: aggressive behavior, cheating,
temper tantrums common
Adolescence
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Adolescent egocentrism
• Involves intense focus on self and feelings of immortality
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
• Influences increased risky behaviors
•
Personal Fable
•
Imaginary Audience
Adolescence
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
© Michael Ainsworth/Dallas Morning News/Corbis
Adolescent brain
Teen inmates stand in line at a
Texas prison facility. As of 2005,
defendants being tried for crimes
committed before age 18 are no
longer candidates for the death
penalty.
•
Significant limbic system
development compared to
prefrontal cortex can lead to
increase in risk-taking behavior.
•
Increased myelination of axons
in prefrontal cortex which is not
yet fully developed
•
Adolescent may not foresee
the possible consequences of
reward-seeking activities.
Should this influence decision
about teenagers and the death
penalty?
Adolescence
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN
ADOLESCENCE
Erikson’s stage of ego identity versus role
confusion
• Involves adolescent identity formation and trying out new
roles
• Influenced by positive resolution and success at earlier
stages
• Positive resolution = Stronger sense of values, beliefs,
and goals
• Negative resolution = Role confusion
SOCIOEMOTIONAL
DEVELOPMENT IN
ADOLESCENCE
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
SW Productions/Getty Images
Relationships between teens
and parents are generally
positive, but most involve
some degree of conflict.
Parents and Friends
Many disputes center on
everyday issues, like clothing
and chores, but the seemingly
endless bickering does have a
deeper meaning.
The adolescent is breaking
away from his parents,
establishing himself as an
autonomous person.
Parenting Styles
Baumrind
2 factors:
Discipline and control
Love and affection
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Low
High
Socialization
Parenting Styles
Authoritarian parents
Make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioning obedience,
punish transgressions
Authoritative parents
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Set high but realistic standards, reason with the child,
enforce limits, and encourage open communication
and independence
Permissive parents
Make few rules or demands, allow children to make
their own decisions and control their own behavior
Socialization
Parenting Styles - Outcomes
Children with authoritarian parents: withdrawn,
anxious, and unhappy
Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow
Children with authoritative parents: happier; have
higher self-esteem; more self-reliant, socially
competent; more responsible than their peers
Children with permissive parents: most immature,
impulsive, and dependent, and the least self-reliant
and self-controlled