CHAPTER 15
Ethnographic Research: Its History,
Ethnographic
Research: Its History,
Methods,
and Theories.
Methods, and Theories
Chapter Preview
How and Why Did Ethnographic
Research Evolve?
 What Are Ethnographic Research
Methods?
 How Is Research Related to
Theory?

Components of Cultural
Anthropology
There are two main components in Cultural
Anthropology
1. Ethnography -A detailed description of a
particular culture primarily based on
fieldwork.
2. Ethnology -The study and analysis of
different cultures from a comparative point
of view.
Each taking place in various areas throughout
the world from postindustrial societies to
small communities.
Traditional vs. Modern
Ethnography
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Historically most anthropological research
took place on far reaching societies where
little to no information was known about the
peoples and their culture. These early
ethnographies were a focus on the life ways
of these non-industrialized communities
which were thought to soon disappear by
“civilized” nations.
Modern ethnography has changed focus
towards documented dying cultures and
changing cultures in the face of
globalization and forced assimilation.
Urgent/Salvage
Anthropology
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During the past several hundred years with
expanding western domination many
cultures have become extinct or are on the
verge of extinction do to a violent history.
Since anthropologists can not stop violent
or forced cultural changes they have tried to
document what is left of these endangered
cultures through a technique known as
urgent anthropology: ethnographic
research that documents endangered
cultures.
Acculturation Studies
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Similar to urgent anthropological studies are
acculturation studies.
Indigenous or native cultures that come into
contact with more dominant cultures often
change drastically. These changes cause
cultures to adapt quickly to a new way of life
such as abandoning native languages,
religious beliefs, or social practices.
Leaving these societies in despair and
poverty unable to survive in the new forced
culture.
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Since the 1930’s famous anthropologist
Margaret Mead pioneered the first
acculturation study with the Omaha Indians
of Nebraska.
These studies will document changes in the
face of the new cultures while documenting
the traditional way of the culture as it might
have been pre-contact.
Applied Anthropology

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Acculturation studies gave birth to applied
anthropology-the use of anthropological
knowledge and methods to solve practical
problems in communities confronting new
challenges.
Governmental officials whom earlier had begun
programs to assimilate native cultures into
mainstream culture quickly realized they were
faced with larger problems.
The begun to enlist the help of anthropologists
to develop government programs to reduce
poverty, promote literacy, and other issues.
“Culture at a Distance”
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During WWII and the Cold War,
anthropologists were unable to study some
cultures especially those in warring areas.
Several prominent anthropologists began a
technique of studying “cultures at a
distance”.
They would focus on the analysis of
newspapers, literature, photographs, and
films. This information was sometimes use
as propaganda and psychological warfare
for countries at war.
Peasant Studies

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Peasantry represents the largest social
category of our species so far. They fall into
a category between modern industrial
society and traditional subsistence foragers,
herders, farmers, and fishers.
Because peasant unrest over economic and
social problems fuels political instability
anthropological studies of rural populations
are considered significant and practical.
Anthropologists began to focus in on the
smaller scale indigenous communities to
offer insight on how to deal with peasants
resisting challenges to their traditional way
of life
Advocacy Anthropology
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Some anthropologists have gone beyond
just studies of peasant cultures and become
an advocate for them. This is known as
advocacy anthropology: research that is
community based and politically involved.
These anthropologists are committed to
social justice, humans rights, and the
preservation of ethnic minority culture.
Multi-Sited Ethnography
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In the world of globalization there is a new trend
in ethnographic research known as multi-sited
ethnography: the investigation and
documentation of peoples and cultures
embedded in the larger structures of a
globalizing world, utilizing a range or methods
in various locations of time and space.
More recent emerging techniques in multi-sited
ethnography are greater interdisciplinary
approaches to fieldwork. These will bring
theoretical ideas and research methods from
cultural studies, media studies, and mass
communication.
Ethnography: Research
Methods
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Ethnographic fieldwork is best defined as
extended on-location research to gather
detailed and in-depth information on a
society’s customary ideas, values, and
practices through participation in its
collective social life.
The first important question to be answered
is what site to research?
Site Selection
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Anthropologists primarily research cultures
outside of their own, in a foreign country.
This is based on the idea that studies done
in one’s own culture might bring biased to
the research due to the familiarity with the
group or culture being studied.
Research will require several questions to
be asked such as:
 Finding funding
 Securing permission to research
 Deciding what focus the research will
take
Accurately Describing a
Culture
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To accurately describe a culture an
anthropologist needs to seek out and consider
three types of data:
1. The people’s own understanding of their
culture and the general rules they share.
2. The extent to which people believe they are
observing those rules.
3. The behavior that can be directly observed.
There are many techniques that ethnographers
rely on to answer these questions.
Research Methodology

There are many facets to researching a new
culture or cultural practice that the
ethnography will use:
 Acceptance
 Participant Observant
 Key Consultants
 Quantitative & Qualitative Data
 Interviewing
 Mapping
 Photography & Filming
Informed Consent
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It is essential that ethnographers receive
informed consent which is a formal
recorded agreement to participate in
research.
When it is a challenge to obtain informed
consent, or even impossible to precisely
explain the meaning and purpose of this
concept and its actual consequences,
anthropologists may protect the identities of
individuals.
Participant Observation

The most significant aspect of ethnographic
research is participant observation. A
research method in which one learns about
a group’s beliefs and behaviors through
social participation and personal
observation within the community, as well
as interviews and discussion with individual
members of the group over an extended
stay in the community.
Key Consultant
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In order to gain insight into the culture a
particular member might be utilized. Often
these informants or key consultants will be
a member of the society being studied, who
provides information that helps researchers
understand the meaning of what they
observe.
They may also provide vital information to
the ethnographer about the history of the
group.
Data Collection
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There are two main types of data collection
used in many types of research.
Anthropologists utilize both of these:
Quantitative- Statistical or measurable
information, such as demographic
composition, the types and quantities of
crops grown, or the ratio of spouses born
and raised within or outside the community.
Qualitative- Nonstatistical information such
as personal life stories and customary
beliefs and practices.
Interviewing

Ethnographers must be consistently engaged in
conversation throughout their research. This is the
single best way to understand what people think about
their own culture as well as the world around them.
These conversations may take two approaches:
• Informal interview
• An unstructured, open-ended conversation in
everyday life.
• Formal interview
• A structured question/answer session carefully
notated as it occurs and based on prepared
questions.
Eliciting Devices

Apart from traditional techniques of interview,
data collection, and the use of a key cultural
consultant are eliciting devices. These
techniques can be activities or objects that can
be used to draw out individuals and encourage
them to recall and share information.
 Taking a walk
 Asking about particular stories
 Share details of one’s own childhood or a
fond memory.
 Pictures
Challenges of Ethnographic
Fieldwork

Ethnographic research creates a tough
challenge in itself. Often anthropologists must
face personal challenges while trying to adjust
to a new culture and conduct fieldwork. Among
the numerous mental challenges
anthropologists commonly face are
 Culture shock
 Loneliness
 Feeling like an ignorant outsider
 Being socially awkward in a new cultural
setting.
Challenges of Ethnography

Physical challenges typically include but are
not limited too:
 Adjusting to unfamiliar food, climate, and
hygiene conditions.
 The need to be constantly alert to
relevant conversations that are
significant to one’s research.
 Ethnographers must spend considerable
time interviewing, making detailed notes,
and analyzing data.
Challenges of Ethnography

Social & political challenges typically
include but are not limited too:
 The need to gain acceptance within the
community.
 Issues involving the researchers age,
skin color, ethnicity, religion, or gender.
 Being the center of rivaling groups while
trying to maintain a neutral position.
Completing an Ethnography

Upon completion of the data collection in
the field the ethnographer must begin to
piece together their information. Written
ethnographies are more traditional but
certainly not the only method to document
the data. Digital photography is the
method by which the use of audio and
visual technologies can be used to collect
and analysis the information collected.
Ethnohistory
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This is a type of historical ethnographic study by
which a culture(s) of the recent past is explored
through oral histories, accounts of explorers,
missionaries, and traders, and through analysis of
records such as land titles, birth and death records,
and other archival materials.
This type of research is great for building theories
regarding culture change.
 In science an explanation of natural phenomena,
supported by a reliable body of data.
Description vs. Theory
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Once an ethnography is complete so begins
the interpretation of the information collected
in the field. It is necessary to understand how
descriptions can develop into interpretations.
Theories are not usually ascertained by the
researcher due to the nature of the data (nonscientific) rather they focus on the probability
of certain aspects of the culture.
Researchers might rely more heavily on the
doctrine of a culture: an assertion of opinion
or belief formally handed down by an
authority as true and indisputable.
Also known as dogma.
Human Relations Area Files
(HRAF)
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In science a single instance of a
phenomenon is not enough to support a
hypothesis- let alone a theory
Anthropological theories are formulated
from worldwide cross cultural comparisons
throughout history.
The Human Relations Area Files help to
make this happen.
HRAF
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HRAF is a vast collection of cross-indexed
ethnographic and archaeological data
catalogued by cultural characteristics and
geographic locations.
Archived in about 300 libraries (on
microfiche and/or online).
They include: warfare, subsistence
practices, settlement patterns, marriage,
rituals, etc.
Anthropology’s Theoretical
Perspectives
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Ethnographers will typically fall into one of
two categories for their fieldwork.
Idealist perspective
 A theoretical approach stressing the
primacy of superstructure (ideas &
values) in cultural research and analysis.
Materialist perspective
 A theoretical approach stressing the
primacy of infrastructure (material
conditions) in cultural research and
analysis.
Suggested Activities
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Students often overlook the importance of learning
ethnographic research methods because it can be
difficult to apply them to a real life scenario. There are
several techniques that can help the student better
understand the importance of research techniques
and how ethnographers gain insight into the their
fields of study.
Below are two activities that can help the student to
apply what they have learned. One activity is short
and can be completed in 1-2 class periods depending
on time. The other is best used as a research project
and can take up to 4+ weeks to complete.
Short Activity
(20min-1hour)
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Have the students pair off or place them into pairs.
Allow each student to conduct an ethnography on the
other through interview. Ask them to first write a
series of questions about what they would like to
know about the other student.
Give the students free range with their questions but
suggest that they ask both personal and impersonal
questions.
Class discussions afterwards can focus on how
easily their informant (interviewee) answered the
questions and what ones they felt uncomfortable
with.
Touch on concepts dealing with gaining acceptance,
interview techniques, as well as observation, etc.
Longer Activity
(several weeks)
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Have students chose a topic to research that is something they
are unfamiliar with but might be interested in learning about.
 Such topics might include: Religious ceremonies, clubs, rites
of passage, local activities, etc.
 Once students have chosen a topic (1-2 weeks)
Give students a rubric of focus. Generally they should attend the
function (participant observation), interview people whom are
involved in the function or event (interview) and describe what
they see.
The focus will be for the student to conduct their own miniethnography and then either submit a paper on the ethnography
or present it to the class.
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I have found that students will seem lost in the
beginning but urge them to really think out side of the
box, generally they will come up with amazing topics of
research. I typically do not discourage any research
provided it is done in a safe environment and remains
on topic with an ethnographic focus.
Keep the students focused throughout the research by
having them ask the five “w”’s
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“Who” practices this?
practiced?
“Where” is this practiced?
practiced?
“Why” is it practiced?
“What” is
“When” is it