Part I:
Consultation and Consultants,
Collaboration and Collaborators
Chapter I:
Introduction and Overview
Consultation Defined
• Consultation is a process in which a human
services professional assists a consultee
with a work-related (or caretaking-related)
problem with a client system, with the goal
of helping both the consultee and the client
system in some specific way.
Consultation Defined
• Consultation deals • The consultant and
exclusively with the
consultee work
consultee’s worktogether in solving
related or carethe problems
giving related
defined by
problems.
consultation.
.
• Role of human service
professional
• Problem-solving
process
• Triadic in nature
• Helping relationship
• Internal or external
• Voluntary for all
parties
• Relationship of peers
• Collaborative
• Temporary
• Remedial or
developmental
Consultative Relationship
• The relationship between the consultee
and consultant is one of peers, of two
equals. Though the two roles are equal
in terms of power, it is the consultee
who has the greatest need within the
consultative relationship.
Consultation and Consultants
• Who are consultants?
• Who are consultees?
• Who is the client system?
Consultants and Consultees
• Priority can be
• The consultant
given to either
provides indirect
consultee or
service to the
client system
client system by
depending on the
providing direct
approach used by
service to the
the consultant
consultee
Rights of Consultation
Participants
• Participation in consultation is
voluntary for all parties involved
• Consultees are free to do whatever
they wish with the consultant’s
they wish with consultant’s
suggestions and recommendations
Length of Consultation
• Though the consultation
relationship is temporary, the
length of consultation may range
from a single session to weekly
sessions for more than a year.
Triad of Consultation
Consultant
Consultee
Client System
Figure 1.2 The triadic relationship in consultation
Collaboration Defined
• Collaboration is very similar to consultation
in that it follows the same problem-solving
process
• Collaboration involves the interactive
exchange of resources, interdependence,
and a focus on decision making.
Collaboration cont’d
• Collaboration is a service in which the
helper accepts responsibility for the mental
health aspects of a case.
The Relationships of the Parties in Collaboration
Collaborator
#1
Collaborator
#2
Client System
Figure 1.3 The Relationships of the Parties in Collaboration
Mental Health Consultation and Mental Health
Collaboration Contrasted on Key Dimensions
Dimensions
Mental Health Consultation
Mental Health Collaboration
Location of consultant’s
home base
External to the organization
Internal to the organization
Type of psychological
service
Generally indirect, with little
or no client contact
Combines indirect and direct
services, and includes client
contact
Consultant-consultee
relationship
Assumes a coordinate and
nonhieracrhical relationship
Acknowledges status and
role differences within the
organization and thus the
liklihood of a hierarchical
relationship
Consultee participation
Assumes voluntary
participation
Assumes voluntary
participation, but
acknowledges the possibility
of forced participation
Interpersonal working
arrangement
Often dyadic, involving
consultant and consultee
Generally team-based,
involving several
collaborators
Confidentiality of
communications within
relationship
Assumes confidentiality to
exist with limits of
confidentiality (if any)
specified during initial
contracting
Does not automatically
assume confidentiality, given
organization realities and
pragmatic need to share
relevant information among
team members
Consultee freedom to accept or
reject consultant advice
Yes
Not assumed to be true, as a
collaborator’s expertise is his
or her specialty area is
generally deferred to by team
Consultant responsibility for
case/program outcome
No
Shares equal responsibility
for overall outcome, and
primary responsibility for
mental health aspects of case
or program
From: Caplan, G.R., Caplan, R.B., and Erchul, W.P. (1994). Caplan mental health consultation:
Historical background and current status. Consulting Psychology Journal, 1994, p.7. By permission
of publisher.
A Distinguishing Difference
Between
Consultation and Collaboration
• In consultation, the consultee retains
responsibility for the outcome, is considered
to be the determiner of the suitability of
possible interventions, and is responsible
for adequate implementation of the
intervention (i.e., ensuring treatment
integrity) (Zins & Erchul, 1995).
Chapter II:
Consultants, Consultees,
and Collaborators
Skill Areas for Consultants
and Collaborators
•
•
•
•
Interpersonal skills
Communication skills
Problem-solving skills
Skills in working with organizations
Skill Areas for Consultants and
Collaborators cont’d
• Group skills
• Skills in dealing with cultural diversity
• Ethical and professional behavior skills
Roles of the Consultant:
The consultant can take on a variety of roles
depending on several factors:
• Nature of the
problem
• Purpose and
desired outcomes
of consultation
• Skills of the
consultant
• Skills of the
consultee
Common Consultation and
Collaboration Roles
Directive
*
Advocacy
Expert
Trainer/Educator
Collaborator
Fact Finder
Process Specialist
*
Non-directive
Internal/External
Consultants
• A consultant can either be separate
from or part of the system in which
consultation is to occur.
Research in
Consultation and Collaboration
• Consultation research suggests that
consultation has efficacy even though
consultation practice has outpaced its body
of research.
Research cont’d
• The research on collaboration is very
limited
Chapter III:
Entry Stage
Stage I: Entry
• Phase One: Exploring Organizational
Needs
• Phase Two: Contracting
• Phase Three: Physically Entering the
System
• Phase Four: Psychologically Entering
the System
Phase One:
Exploring Organizational Needs
To Consult or Not to Consult
•
•
•
•
•
Why am I here?
Who are you?
What is likely to happen?
What will be the result?
What can go wrong?
Phase Two: Contracting
Reason for
contracting:
• To clearly define
expectations of
both consultant
and consultee
Elements of a
contract:
• goals
• time frame
• responsibility of
consultant & agency
• boundaries
• review and
evaluation
Phase Three: Physically
Entering the System
•
•
•
•
Moving into “work space”
Getting to know employees of organization
Adapt to organization’s schedule
Have those affected by consultation
informed about the consultant’s role
Phase Four: Psychologically
Entering the System
• The gradual acceptance of the consultant by
members of the organization in which
consultation is being performed
• Consider the process level (how
organization functions) and personal
interaction (how people within an
organization function)
During Phase Four a Consultant
Should. . .
• Create trustworthiness by. . .
– Demonstrating understanding
– Using power appropriately
– Respecting confidentiality
– Exhibiting credibility
Multicultural Implications:
Entry Stage
• Be aware of other’s value systems
• Use effective communication and
interpersonal skill
• Determine comfort level in dealing with any
cultural or ethnic issues related to the
problem
• Be aware of how cultural differences may
impact the outcome of consultation
Application of Multicultural
Implications for Entry
• Certain minority cultural groups may be
concerned about the interpersonal
orientation of a consultant who is from a
majority culture; whereas, a consultee from
a majority culture may be more interested in
the assistance-value of a consultant
Chapter IV:
Diagnosis Stage
Stage II: Diagnosis
• Phase One: Gathering Information
• Phase Two: Defining the Problem
• Phase Three: Setting Goals
• Phase Four: Generating Possible
Interventions
Phase One: Gathering
Information
• Deciding to proceed
• Selecting dimension
• Deciding who will be involved in data
collection
• Selecting the data collection methods
Types of Data
•
•
•
•
•
•
Genetic data
Current descriptive data
Process data
Interpretive data
Consultee-client system relationship data
Client system behavior data
Means of Collecting Data
•
•
•
•
•
Interviews
Surveys
Questionnaires
Observation
Documents/Records
Phase Two: Defining the
Problem
• How many factors affect the problem?
• How has the problem developed over
time?
• What past events are causing the
current problem?
• How are future expectations related?
Phase Three: Setting Goals
• The process of shaping, a
movement toward concreteness
and specificity from a broader,
more general perspective
Goal Setting Steps
• Specify objective
• How will objective
be measured?
• Specify target
• Specify time span
• Prioritize goals
• Rate goals
• Determine
coordination
requirements
Phase Four: Generating
Possible Interventions
• Intervention- a force that attempts to
modify some outcome. In
consultation, interventions are actions
or activities that, when put together in
a systematic manner, make up a plan to
achieve a goal
Multicultural Implications:
Diagnosis Stage
• Be aware of differences in gathering
data
• Be aware of perceptions of what needs
to be accomplished held by consultee
• Cultural differences can play a role in
the interventions proposed
Application of Multicultural
Implications for Diagnosis
• Consultee from a high context culture may
prefer interviewing and observation;
whereas, those from a low context culture
may prefer surveys or document research
• Some cultural groups may see the focus of
diagnosis as being the group, and some may
see the focus as being the individual
Chapter V:
Implementation Stage
Stage III: Implementation
• Phase One: Choosing an Intervention
• Phase Two: Formulating a Plan
• Phase Three: Implementing the Plan
• Phase Four: Evaluating the Plan
Phase One: Choosing an
Intervention
• Select one or two interventions that have a
high probability of being successful
• Take advantage of decision consultation
Types of Interventions
•
•
•
•
Individual Interventions
Dyadic and Triadic Interventions
Interventions for use between groups
Interventions for the entire
organization
Phase Two: Formulating the
Plan
• Plan- a detailed step-by-step method,
formulated before hand, for doing
something.
• Considerations–
–
–
–
–
What (objective)
Where (locale of implementation)
When (time frame)
How (methods, procedures, sequence)
Who (who is responsible for what)
Phase Three: Implementing
the Plan
•
•
•
•
Help consultee be flexible
Reassure and prepare consultee
Offer technical assistance during this time
Exercise caution toward dependency
Phase Four: Evaluating the
Plan
• Evaluation- the collection of
data/information about the
implementation to determine its
effectiveness in meeting the specified
goal
– implementation evaluation
– outcome evaluation
Techniques used in outcome
evaluation
• Individualized goal attainment measures
• Standardized outcome assessment devices
• Consumer satisfaction survey
Multicultural Implications:
Implementation Stage
• Cultural differences can impact the perception of
the type of intervention selected and these
differences should be taken into account when
selecting and implementing an intervention
• The question of responsibility during
implementation may be based on cultural
differences
• During evaluation it is important to have
multicultural input
Application for Multicultural
Implications during
Implementation
• Some cultural groups choose to focus on
using groups rather than focusing on time
factors
• Some cultural groups may see the efficiency
of the plan as most beneficial during
evaluation; whereas, other groups may
evaluate the social impact of the plan
Chapter VI:
Disengagement Stage
Stage IV: Disengagement
• Phase One: Evaluating the Process of
Consultation
• Phase Two: Planning Post-consultation
Matters
• Phase Three: Reducing Involvement and
Following-up
• Phase Four: Terminating
Phase One: Evaluating
Process
• Determine process and effects of
consultation
• Assess accountability and
improvements in service
• Add knowledge to the field of
consultation
Types of Evaluation
• Summative
– the evaluation of outcomes or products
• Formative
– evaluation of the process of consultation
– perform evaluations at the end of each
phase of consultation
Phase Two: Planning PostConsultation Matters
• Review planning process:
–
–
–
–
–
determining objectives
establish procedures
defining steps
assigning responsibility
testing for feasibility, cost effectiveness
and capabilities
Phase Three: Reducing
Involvement and Following-up
• Reducing
Involvement• gradual reduction in
consultants contact
with consultee and
organization, which
prevents abrupt
termination
• Follow-up• the process of
periodically checking
how well the results of
consultation are being
maintained over time
and how the
organization is
performing postconsultation efforts
Phase Four: Terminating
• Terminating provides closure in a formal
and ritualistic manner
– leave consultee satisfied in process and
accomplishments
– tie up unresolved issues before leaving
– beware of the issues of dependence and
depression
Multicultural Implications:
Disengagement Stage
• Be aware of the cultural social needs of
consultee involving the time factor involved
with disengagement
• Dependency during follow-up phase may be
influenced by cultural factors
Application of Multicultural
Implications for
Disengagement
• Some consultees may require a longer
follow-up period before termination as
a result of degree of dependency or
importance of relationships
Chapter VII:
Ethical, Professional, and
Legal Issues
Ethics Defined
• Standards of moral and professional
conduct
• Code of ethics--a written ethical guideline
followed by professionals
– discourages inappropriate practice
– protects recipient of services
– promotes exemplary behavior
Making Ethical Judgements
• Identify problem
• Identify potential
issues
• Review ethical
guidelines
• Consult colleagues
• Consider courses of
action
• Consider
consequences for
various decisions
• Determine best course
of action
Values
• Those beliefs and principles held by a
person which have been formed by his/her
life experiences
• Consultant should know what his/her values
are
• Consultant should not expect other to hold
the same values
• Consultant should be aware of specific
values held by cultural and ethnic groups
Competence
• Providing services and accepting jobs for
which one is qualified
–
–
–
–
maintain high levels of professionalism
know one’s professional limitations
know when to decline and refer
avoid situations in which personal concerns
could affect professional performance
Consultant-Consultee-Client
Relationship
• Work-related focus
• Dual relationships
• Freedom of choice
Rights of Consultee
• Confidentiality--protecting the identities of
parties involved in consultation
• Informed Consent--to inform consultees
about the nature and goals of consultation,
their right to privacy, the voluntary nature
of participation and the complete freedom
they have in following suggestions made by
the consultant
The Consultant and the Group
• Consulting with groups with caseloads
• Consulting with training groups
Intervention Areas Involving
Ethical Issues
• Individual vs. systems-level
• Use of assessment data
• Empirical validity of interventions
Ethical Issues in
Organizational Consultation
• Typical ethical issues exacerbated by
complexity or organization
• Aspirational ethics
• Virtue ethics
Consulting Over the Internet
• Relationship development
• Confidentiality
• Location-specific factors
Legal Issues: Malpractice
Behaviors often leading to legal
entanglements:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Misrepresenting one’s training
Failing to respect integrity and privacy
Using improper diagnosis and assessment
Collecting fees improperly
Libel and slander
Breech of contract
Failing to keep adequate records
Failing to provide informed consent
Providing poor advice
Part III:
Models of Consultation
and Collaboration
Chapter VIII
The Pragmatic Issues of Working
within an Organization
Pragmatic Issues
A. Recent changes in society and
organizations
B. The influence of organizational theory
C. Organizational change
Pragmatic issues cont’d
C. Dealing with organizational culture
D. Issues in assessment in organizations
E. Culturally sensitive organization
F. Time constraints
Basic Societal Change
Affecting New Workers
•Diminishing % of young people entering workforce
•New workers less skilled than previous generations
•Over 33% of new workers are from minority groups
•Women make up at least 60% of new workers
Organizational Changes
Affecting the Workplace
•Increased complexity and diversification
•Managers of agencies/organizations more familiar with
organizational change concepts
•Organizations/agencies more concerned with ethics
•Greater competition among all types of organizations
Organizational Theory
defined
*The study of the structures and processes of
organizations and the behavior of groups and
individuals within them (Pugh, 1967).
The Bureaucratic Model
•Designed by Max Weber as the ideal of organizational
effectiveness.
•“Means to ends” in nature
•Each unit under direct control of higher unit
•Organizations meant to be efficient, effective, and
equitable.
Open Systems
Organizational Theory
Two types of systems: closed and open
*Closed systems are not affected by their
environments: they have a finite amount of energy,
and when that energy is used up, the system runs
down.
*Open systems have permeable boundaries and can
obtain energy from and send energy back to the
environment.
*Organizations can be viewed as open systems
Four components to the
systems theory
•A framework (pattern of activities)
•Goals
•Methods and operations
•People
Basic assumptions of the
systems theory
•Organizations are open systems; subject to internal and
external influences
•Considers organizations a totality
•Interdependence among its parts
•Assumes that an organization is more than a sum of its
parts
•Organizational behavior is seen an dynamic & cyclical
9 Characteristics of Systems
•Importation of energy
•The throughput
•The output
•Systems are cycles and events
•Negative entropy
•Information input, negative feedback, and the
coding process
•The steady state and dynamic homeostasis
•Differentiation
•Equifinality
5 subsystems within an
organization
•The technological or production subsystem
•The support subsystem
•The maintenance subsystem
•The adaptive subsystem
•The managerial subsystem
Approaches to
organizational change
•Empirical-rational approach
•Normative-reeducative approach
•Power-coercive approach
•Top-down approach
•Bottom-up approach
•Shared approach
Cultural attributes of a
successful organization
•Uniqueness in their philosophy
•A focus by management on maintaining the philosophy
•Deliberate attempts to integrate the philosophy
throughout the organization
•Involvement by all staff in communicating and
reinforcing an organization-wide view of events and
decisions
Culturally Sensitive Organization
• Views diversity as a value added
opportunity
• Is proactive in responding to the constant
diversity-related, economic, political and
social conditions
• Effectively provides services crossculturally
Chapter IX:
Mental Health Consultation
and Collaboration
Basic Characteristics of
Mental Health Consultation
• Method used by professionals in respect to a lay
client or program for clients
• Problem is mental health related
• Consultant had no professional responsibility for
the outcome of the case
• Consultee can accept or decline the suggestions of
the consultant
• The relationship between consultant and consultee
is to coordinate
Basic Characteristics of Mental
Health Consultation (cont.)
• The consultant is external
• Consultation often takes place in a short set of
interviews
• Consultants use a problem, response method
during consultation, not predetermined answers
• The goals of consultation are to help consultee
improve their handling or understanding of the
current work difficulty and to increase the
capacity to deal with future problems
Basic Characteristics of Mental
Health Consultation (cont.)
• Consultation continues indefinitely
• The aim of consultation is to improve job
performance
• Consultation does not focus on personal problems
or feelings of the consultee
• Consultation is a professional function of a
specialist
• M.H.C. is a method of communication between a
mental health specialist and other professionals
Psychodynamic Approach
• Fosters the concept that our behavior is a
product of unconscious motivation and that
most of our personal issues result from early
childhood experiences, resulting in conflicts
that affect our behavior and cause use
problems
Transfer Effect
• The concept that what is learned in one
situation should be useable in similar, future
situations
“One-Downsmanship”
• A valuable relationship building technique
that a consultant can use to ensure that the
relationship remains on equal footing
Types of Mental Health
Consultation
• Client-centered case
• Consultee-centered case
• Program-centered administrative
• Consultee-centered administrative
The Client-Centered Case
Process
• The focus is a client’s case that is giving the
consultee difficulty
• Consultant functions as expert
• The consultee acts as a link between client
and consultant as well as a professional
collaborator
Application for ClientCentered Process
• Create a list of questions about both the
client’s and consultee’s situations and
options
• Answer those questions by gathering
information from the consultee
• Write a report for the consultee outlining
observations and recommendations
Consultee-Centered Case
Process
• The goal is improvement of consultee’s
ability to work on a particular case and
cases in the future
• Consultant plays the roles of detective,
expert, and educator
Application for ConsulteeCentered Process
• Determine what reason the consultee is
having a problem:
–
–
–
–
Lack of knowledge
Lack of skill
Lack of self-confidence
Lack of professional objectivity
Lack of Objectivity
• Simple identification--identifies with the client
• Transference--Transfers onto the client feeling
and attitudes from key relationships in the past
• Characterological distortions--Personality
problem that interferes with effective delivery of
human services
• Theme interference--A special type of transference
in which the consultee experiences an
unexplainable “block” in progressing on a case
Program-Centered
Administrative Consultation
Process
• Assessment of mental health aspects of some
program or internal functioning of the
organization
• Consultant should be knowledgeable and
experienced in organizational theory and practice,
program development, fiscal policy,
administrative procedures and personal
management
• Administrator acts as principle consultee
Application for ProgramCentered Administrative
Process
• Scanning--a general overview of the
organization and its functions
• Gather and interpret additional data
• Consultant makes interim recommendations
• Formal report of recommendations for both
short-term and long-term goals and methods
of implementation
The Consultee-Centered
Administrative Consultation
Process
• The consultant works with an organization’s
administrative-level personnel to help solve
problems in personal management or
implementation of organizational policy
• The administrator has the job of helping the
consultant decide whether additional forms of
consultation are required, whether there are to be
other consultees and how involved they are to be
in the consultation process
Application of ConsulteeCentered Administrative
Consultation Process
• Beginnings follow the same methods as
other consultation processes
• Determine who consultees will be
• Study the organization’s social system
and identify problems and issues
Ecological Perspective
• Provides consultants with a way of making
changes within a given system
• Helps individuals contribute significantly
• Helps people adapt to the setting in which
something is expected of them
• Resources of the organization are an important
part of facilitating change during consultation
• Prevention is the key goal
• Considers how persons, settings and events can
become resources for positive developments with
an organization
Mental health collaboration
contrasted with mental health
consultation
Multicultural Aspects
• Client-centered allows for minimal
disclosure on the part of the consultee
• Consultee-case suitable for consultees
wanting assistance from a knowledgeable
authority figure
• Increased breadth and flexibility allow fro
sensitivity to cultural variables
Chapter X:
Behavioral Consultation and
Collaboration
Behavioral Consultation
Defined
• A relationship whereby services consistent
with a behavioral orientation are provided
either indirectly to a client or system or
directly by training consultees to enhance
their skills with clients and/or systems
Characteristics of
Behavioral Consultation
• Use of indirect service delivery models
• Reliance on behavioral technology
principles
• Diversity of intervention goals
• Changes aimed at various targets in
different settings
Key Concepts in Behavioral
Consultation
• Scientific View of Behavior
• Emphasis on current influences on behavior
• Principles of behavior change
The Consultation Process
• Behavioral case consultation
• Behavioral technology training
• Behavioral systems consultation
Behavioral Case
Consultation
• A consultant provides direct, behaviorbased service to a consultee concerning the
management of a client or group of clients
assigned to the consultee
• Consultants use a system problem-solving
process to assist consultee with their clients
Verbalization Technology
• Control of the consultant’s and consultee’s
verbalizations by the consultant for full
benefit and effectiveness for the
consultation process to occur
• Four Aspects:
–
–
–
–
message source
message content
message process
message control
Four Stages of Problem
Identification for Behavioral
Case Consultation
•
•
•
•
Problem identification stage
Problem analysis
Plan (treatment) implementation stage
Problem (treatment) evaluation stage
Behavioral Technology
Training
• Used when consultees seek to increase
general usage of behavioral technology
principles when working with clients
• Often used in schools
The Training
• The consultant trains consultees in general
behavior principles or specific behavioral
technology skills
• Can be formal or informal
• Individual or group
• Education/training model (chap. 9) is
similar to this training
Behavioral Systems
Consultation
• Behavioral technology principles are
applied to a social system
• The consultant uses principles to analyze
and change interactions among various subsystems of a larger social system
or between two or
more interactive
systems
The Consultant’s Function
and Roles
• An expert in behavioral systems
consultation, systems theory, and behavioral
ecology
• Guides consultee through a systematic
problem-solving process
• Consultation relationship is collaborative
Implications for
Consultation
• Behavioral systems consultation assumes
that all or part of a system is experiencing
functional difficulty
• Consultation consists of the following:
–
–
–
–
system definition
system assessment
system intervention
system evaluation
Conjoint Behavioral Consultation
• Uses parents and teachers as conjoint
consultees
• Designed to bridge the gap between the
school and the home and maximize the
spread of effects form one setting to another
Collaboration from a Behavioral
Perspective
• The use of behavioral collaboration can be
increased by organizations making effective
use of behavioral technology training
Multicultural Aspects Related to
Behavioral Consultation
• Appealing to cultural groups that do not
freely express feelings
• Valuable to cultural groups that want
concrete and predictable outcomes
Chapter XI:
Organizational Consultation and
Collaboration
Organizational Consultation
Defined
• The process in which a professional
provides assistance of a technical,
diagnostic/prescriptive, or facilitative nature
to an individual or group from that
organization to enhance the organization’s
ability to deal with change and maintain or
enhance its effectiveness in some
designated way.
Key Concepts in
Organizational Consultation
• The organization as client
• Process is as important
as content
Edgar Schein’s Model of
Consultation
• Purchase of Expertise
– Education/Training consultation
– Program Consultation
• The Doctor/Patient Model
• The Process Model
The Purchase of Expertise
Model
• The consultee knows what the problem is,
what needs to be done to solve the problem
and who can help solve it
• The consultant comes in as an expert to
simply solve the problem
Education/Training
Consultation
• The most frequently used purchase of
expertise consultation
• The consultant provides education/training
services in any number of areas and settings
Critical Skills for
Education/Training
Consultation
• Assessing training needs
• Developing and stating measurable
objectives
• Understanding the learning and change
process
• Designing a learning experience
• Planning and designing educational events
Critical Skills for Educational/
Training Consultation
•
•
•
•
Using heuristic laboratory methods
Using multiple learning stimuli
Functioning as a group teacher or trainer
Helping others learn how to learn
Four Steps of
Educational/Training
Consultation
•
•
•
•
Needs assessment
Planning education/training activities
Performing education/training
Evaluation
Program Consultation
• A form of purchase expertise consultation
in which the organization in some way uses
the consultant to help plan a new program
or revise or deal with factors that affect an
existing program
• The goal is to provide an organization
technical assistance so that a given program
can be successful
The Doctor/Patient Model
• The consultee knows something is wrong,
but does not know what is wrong.
• The consultant is given the power to make a
diagnosis and prescribe a solution
• The goal is to define the problem and
recommend realistic interventions
Critical Skills for the
Doctor/Patient Model
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Diagnostic skills
Prescriptive skills
In-depth knowledge of organizational theory
Ability to “read” organizations
Data collection skills
Date interpretation skills
Human relations skills
The Process Model
• The consultant’s expertise should include
skills to involve the consultee in defining
the problem, to form a team with the
consultee and to ensure that the consultation
process focuses on the consultee’s needs
• The consultant makes the consultee a more
effective problem solver
Seven Steps to Process
Consultation
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Making initial contact
Defining the relationship
Selecting a setting and method of work
Gathering data/making diagnosis
Intervening
Reducing involvement
Terminating
More on Process
Consultation
• Prevention is the key goal
• Process consultation considers how persons,
settings and events can become resources
for positive developments within an
organization
Collaboration from an
Organizational Perspective
• Aim is same as organizational consultation:
the enhanced functioning of the
organization
• The emergence of the internal consultant
role has created many opportunities for
collaboration in organizations
Multicultural Aspects Related to
Organizational Consultation
• Cultural groups that prefer structured,
expert-based consultation will find the
purchase of expertise model attractive
• Cultural groups preferring assistance in
problem definition will find the
doctor/patient model attractive
• Cultural groups for which the relationship is
essential will prefer the process model
Chapter XII:
School Based Consultation
and Collaboration
School Based Consultation
and Collaboration
• Consultation and collaboration are effective
in providing psychological services in the
schools
• As the mental health and instructional needs
of students have become of increasing
concern, interest in consultation and
collaboration has increased commensurately
School Based Consultation
and Collaboration cont’d
• School-based consultation can be focused
on primary prevention, secondary
prevention or tertiary prevention
School Based Consultation
and Collaboration cont’d
• The manner in which consultation and
collaboration take place in schools varies
according to the model being employed
Consulting and Collaborating with
School Administrators
• The school’s leadership is a powerful force
in determining the extent to which
consultation and collaboration are
considered acceptable services
• Administrators have priorities and pressures
for which they may actively seek
consultation
Organizational Development
Consultation
• School administrator + school-based
consultant
• A way of making carefully planned,
predictable change in a school
• The goal is to enhance the school’s
effectiveness by helping school personnel
understand and effectively act on problems
and move toward self-renewal
Consulting and Collaborating with
Teachers
• School-based consultants assist teachers
with both academically and behavioral
challenged children as well as those with
lesser concerns
• School consultation and collaboration can
be effective and efficient ways to help
teachers enhance their professional skills
Alderian Consultation:
Consultation with teachers
• Four Basic Assumptions:
– teachers cannot take responsibility for student
behavior
– teachers should be more involved with
encouragement than with praise
– teachers cannot always prevent failure on the
part of the student
– teachers need to try to meet affective and
cognitive needs of students
C-Group
Forces of the group:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Consultation
Collaboration
Clarification
Caring
Confrontation
Communication
•
•
•
•
•
Cohesion
Commitment
Change
Concern
Confidentiality
C-Group cont’d
– The group consist of four to six teachers and
the consultant
– It meets once a week
– Six to eight sessions
– Teacher presents problems with individual
student and group discusses them
Instructional Consultation
• A collaborative process in which a problem
is identified and interventions are selected
and made
Steps of Instructional
Consultation
•
•
•
•
•
•
Establishing collaborative relationship
Identifying problem
Observing classroom
Assessing curriculum-based learning
Planning instructional intervention
Terminating
Consulting and Collaborating with
Parents/Guardians/Extended
Families
• Schools are consciously attempting to assist
children and increase parental/guardian
involvement in the school
• There is no “one” eclectic model of parent
consultaion or collaboration
Parent Case Consultation
• Can be Alderian, behavior, or mental health
• The goal is to promote increased positive
involvement by parents in the school life of
their child and improve family relationships
Parent Education
• A variation of the education/training
consultation model (chap. 9)
– Parent effectiveness training
– Alderian approaches
– Behavioral approaches
Home School Collaboration
• Goal is to create effective partnerships
between school-based professionals and
parents to enhance student learning
• In collaborating with parents, school-based
professionals ensure that parents are true
partners, are viewed as experts on their
children, and have some responsibility for
the outcomes.
Cross-Cultural Considerations
When Working with Parents
• Culture directly influences the family in a
significant manner
• Consultants can ensure that schools remove
barriers for non-mainstream parents
• Consultants will want to exercise caution in
making any kind of generalizations
regarding any characteristics of a given
culture
Interagency Collaboration
Rationale:
• The problems of children with social and/or
educational problems effect all aspects of a
child’s life such as the home and school.
Interagency cont’d
• The shared responsibility for the case shifts
the focus from what the school can do to
what the community should do to provide
services
Pragmatic Issues of SchoolBased Consultation
• Ethical issues
• Working with other school-based
consultants
• Systems view of the school
More Pragmatic Issue for
S-B Consultation
• Develop a framework for prevention and
intervention
• Time constraints
Multicultural School Consultation
• Ethnic and linguistic minority children
constitute the most rapidly growing segment
of the youth population in the U.S.
• Consultants take into account both
individual differences and cultural issues so
as not to overemphasize cultural variables
School Consultation in the 21st
Century
Consultation and collaboration will:
• Focus more on positively impacting all
students
• Develop culturally sensitive interventions
• Engage in system-level initiatives
• Use data-driven decision making
Chapter XIII
Case Study Illustrations
Case Study Illustrations cont’d
• The purpose of this chapter is to assist you
to apply theory t practice and obtain a more
realistic picture of what transpires in
consultation.
• ACME Human Services Center
• Typescript of consultation and collaboration
sessions