Religion and Multiculturalism
in Canada
La religion et le
multiculturalisme au Canada
The Challenge of Religious Intolerance
and Discrimination
Le défi posé par l’intolérance religieuse et
la discrimination
Religion and Multiculturalism in Canada /
La religion et le multiculturalisme au Canada
David Seljak, Department of Religious Studies
St. Jerome’s University in the University of Waterloo
With
 Joanne Benham Rennick, University of Waterloo
 Andréa Schmidt, independent researcher, Toronto
 Kathryn Da Silva, University of Ottawa
 Paul Bramadat, University of Winnipeg
General conclusions

Religious intolerance and discrimination pose significant
barriers to achieving the goals of multiculturalism

The nature of religious intolerance and discrimination in
Canada is changing.

The old intolerance and discrimination have not been
sufficiently addressed.
General conclusions

An emerging “closed” secularism has the potential to
promote intolerance and discrimination.

Transnational issues threaten to increase religious
intolerance and discrimination in Canada.

A positive, dynamic effort to promote religious freedom
and tolerance will make Canada a more just,
participatory and multicultural society.
Religious intolerance and
discrimination: definitions

Intolerance: attitudes, values and beliefs

Discrimination: actions, practices, and structures

“Structural discrimination” or “religious disadvantage”

Often they go together, but often they do not. For example,
Ontario’s decision not to fund religiously based independent
schools discriminates against non-Catholics but was made in the
absence of malice.
Religion – race – ethnicity

Difficult to isolate religion from race and
ethnicity
 Examples

of Jews and Sikhs.
Difficult to isolate causes of intolerance
and discrimination
 Anti-Semitism,
like Islamophobia, can be a toxic
cocktail of religious chauvinism, racism, ethnic
prejudice, xenophobia, and anti-immigrant bigotry.
Religious intolerance and
discrimination as barriers to the goals
of the Multiculturalism Program

Social justice

Inclusion and participation

Respect for cultural diversity
Sources of religious intolerance
and discrimination in Canada
1.
Structural issues that demand long-term solutions
2.
Secularization: the solution that has become part of
the problem
3.
Globalization and religious intolerance and
discrimination in Canada
4.
Cultural sources of intolerance and discrimination
Structural issues that demand longterm solutions

1. Animosity that results from the social
stratification based on religion

2. Intolerance and discrimination against
minority religious traditions that arises from the
history of Christian privilege

3. Disrespect for the traditional spiritual practices
and beliefs of Canada’s Aboriginal peoples
Secularization: the solution that has
become part of the problem

4. A “closed” or ideological secularism with its
assumption that all religions are essentially
unenlightened, tribal, anti-egalitarian, and
potentially violent.

Anti-immigrant hostility is frequently fueled by feeling that “they” are not
like “us”

Earlier it mean that “they” were not Christian like “us.” Now it often
means that “they” are not secular – that is enlightened, democratic,
liberal, rational, etc. – like “us”
Globalization and religious intolerance
and discrimination in Canada

5. Transnational ethnic, political, and
religious (and ethno-politico-religious)
conflicts are now played out on Canadian
soil.
Cultural sources of intolerance and
discrimination

6. Mistrust and hostility towards so-called New Religious
Movements fostered by the anti-cult movement and the
media

7. Explicit or implicit chauvinism in the theology, ethics,
or practices of religious communities

8. Religious intolerance and discrimination that are part
of a wider ideology of racism and ethnocentrism
Challenge of religious intolerance and
discrimination to multiculturalism
“Ethnoracial diversity may adversely
affect a society’s cohesiveness in two
ways. When diversity results in
inequality, it may undermine the sense
of fairness and inclusion among
individuals and groups. Racial diversity
may also weaken the commonality of
values, commitments and social
relations among individuals and
groups, thereby affecting their capacity
to cooperate in the pursuit of common
objectives. Each dimension is
important in its own right, and they
may have a combined effect on social
cohesion.”
Jeffrey G. Reitz and Rupa Banerjee, "Racial Inequality, Social Cohesion, and
Policy Issues in Canada," in Belonging, Diversity, Recognition and Shared
Citizenship in Canada, ed. Thomas J. Courchene, Keith Banting, and Wanda
Wuttune (Montreal: Institute of Research on Public Policy, 2007), 2.

In the same way, religious
intolerance and
discrimination may
undermine the sense of
justice and inclusion of
significant portions of the
population, weaken
solidarity and mutual
respect, and ultimately
erode social cohesion.
International concern inspires a
number of studies

United Kingdom: Paul Weller, Alice Feldman, and Kingsley
Purdam, "Religious Discrimination in England and Wales, Home
Office Research Study 220," Home Office Research,
Development and Statistics Directorate (2001).

Australia: Gary Bouma Desmond Cahill, Hass Dellal and Michael
Leahy, "Religion Cultural Diversity and Safeguarding Australia,"
ed. Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous
Affairs (2004).

European Union: European Monitoring Centre on Racism and
Xenophobia, "Muslims in the European Union: Discrimination and
Islamophobia," ed. EUMC (EUMC, 2006).
Putting religion back on the
agenda

No policy or program aimed at making
Canada a more participatory, inclusive,
democratic, just and culturally diverse
society can afford to ignore religious
intolerance and discrimination.
The Making of a Christian
Canada
Some historical background on
religion in Canada
Some background on religion
in Canada

Aboriginal peoples had their own spiritual
traditions

French attempted to “transplant
Christendom,” that is, recreate in New
France the condition of “establishment” in
France.
Establishment

Church and State are equally Christian

Church and State cooperate in creating the framework
for society, each acting in its sphere of competence

State usually enforces a religious monopoly on behalf of
the Church

Theology usually justifies the established order

Religion and culture are fused together
The British project of establishment

After 1763, the British attempted to establish the
Church of England in British North America.

By 1854, this project is abandoned, but not the
idea of a Christian Canada

The creation of a “plural establishment.”
The Canadian project:
plural establishment

Official recognition of “non-denominational” Christianity
of the Protestant majority with concessions to large
Roman Catholic population

Cooperation with large, mainline, “respectable”
denominations, especially Anglicans, Presbyterians and
the United Church of Canada

Maintenance of a “social establishment”; Canadian
culture and values are strongly formed by Christianity
We are not the United States

When you are arrested, the police will not
read you your Miranda rights.

There is no separation of Church and
State in Canada.
Historical consequences
 Education,
health care, social services, immigrant
integration, services to aboriginal peoples (including
the residential school disaster) are shared
Church/State intiatives.
 To



be a good Canadian is to be a good Christian.
Prohibition and control of alcohol
Legislation on sexual morality, marriage, and abortion
Lord’s Day Act (1905-1985)
To be a good Canadian, one had to
be a good Christian

In 1913, the Assistant Superintendent of the Baptist
Home Mission Board of Ontario and Quebec, C.J.
Cameron wrote:

We must endeavor to assimilate the foreigner. …If the
Canadian civilization fails to assimilate the great mass of
foreigners admitted to our country the result will be
destruction to the ideals of a free and nominally Christian
nation, which will be supplanted by a lower order of
habits, customs and institutions. …there is but one all
sufficient method by which this goal is reached: we shall
Canadianize the foreigner by Christianizing him.
Consequences

Dismissal and
suppression of aboriginal
spiritualities

Anti-Catholicism

Religious intolerance
added to bigotry towards
members of visible
minority groups




Intolerance towards
minority Christian groups
Widespread antiSemitism



Sikhs
Hindus
Buddhists
Muslims
Chinese
Solution: secularization

Autonomy and neutrality of the state in the face of
religion


Autonomy of the marketplace


For example legislation on same-sex unions
The Lord’s Day Act was first Charter issue under Section 2.
State takes over education, healthcare, social services


Gradually outside of Quebec
Dramatically inside of Quebec: la Révolution tranquille
Solution: secularization

Social disestablishment
 Cultural
values formed by non-Christian sources
 Widespread
cultural adoption of American-style
separation of Church and State
 Religious
diversity seen as a public good and
tolerance or pluralism is embraced as a element of
multiculturalism.
Some caveats re. secularization

Decline of religious mentalities on individual
level did not happen.

Religion is privatized, de-institutionalized,
dispersed, and subjectivated.

The process is by no means complete. Canada
is not a secular society but a secularizing society
and, more precisely, a de-Christianizing society.
The Multi-faith Future
The new religious landscape
Major religious denominations, Canada, 19911 and 2001
2001
Number
1991
%
Number
%
Percentage change 19912001
Roman Catholic
12,793,125
43.2 12,203,625
45.2 4.8
Protestant
8,654,845
29.2 9,427,675
34.9 -8.2
Christian Orthodox
479,620
1.6
387,395
1.4
23.8
Christian, not included
elsewhere2
780,450
2.6
353,040
1.3
121.1
Muslim
579,640
2.0
253,265
0.9
128.9
Jewish
329,995
1.1
318,185
1.2
3.7
Buddhist
300,345
1.0
163,415
0.6
83.8
Hindu
297,200
1.0
157,015
0.6
89.3
Sikh
278,415
0.9
147,440
0.5
88.8
No religion
4,796,325
16.2 3,333,245
12.3 43.9
1. For comparability purposes, 1991 data are presented according to 2001 boundaries.
2. Includes persons who report "Christian", as well as those who report "Apostolic", "Born-again
Christian" and "Evangelical".
What stayed the same

Canada still predominantly Christian, 76.6%.

70% are either Roman Catholic (largest
denomination) or Protestant.

Jews and Roman Catholics experienced
moderate growth (about 4-5%).

http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/Products/Analytic/companion/rel/canada.cfm#overview
What changed since 1991

Number of “no religion,” grew from 12.3% to 16.2%


Increase in Muslim (128.9%), Hindu (89.3), Buddhist
(83.8) and Sikh communities (88.8)


We have no idea what this means because this figure includes
atheists, agnostics, many Chinese Canadians, and young people
who may return to religious practice later.
Still altogether, they make up only 6.3% of the population
Increased in non-mainline Christian population (121%).
Protestant decline 1991-2001

Decline in mainline Protestant denominations (-8%)

Most dramatic for Presbyterians (-35.6%)

Pentecostals dropped 15% to about 369,500
The multi-faith future: why we can expect
more religious diversity in Canada

“Based on the proposed projection scenarios, persons who are
members of non Christian denominations should represent
between 9.2% and 11.2% of the Canadian population in 2017, or
between 3,049,000 and 4,107,000 people.”

Compare to 2001 when 6.3% of the population (1,922,000 people)
identified themselves as Muslim, Jewish, Buddhist, Hindu, Sikh or
other non-Christian religions.

Compare to 1991 when approximately 4% of the population did the
same.

Bélanger and Malenfant, "Population Projections of Visible Minority Groups, Canada, Provinces
and Regions, 2001-2017," 19. http://www.statcan.ca/english/freepub/91-541-XIE/91-541XIE2005001.pdf. Emphasis in the original.
Religious Composition of Immigrant
Cohorts, 1961-2001 (%)
Number of immigrants
before 1961 - 1.76 million*
1961-1970 - 927 thousand
1971-1980 - 1.11 million
1981-1990 - 1.15 million
1991-2001 - 1.83 million
Potential for growth of religious
intolerance and discrimination

Statistics Canada has recently projected
growth in the populations most likely to
experience discrimination.

Increased immigration will bring greater
potential for increase of religious
intolerance and discrimination rooted in
transnational issues.
Potential for growth of religious
intolerance and discrimination

Growth in the population of non-Christian Canadians will
be tied mostly to increased immigration.

These groups will be concentrated in Montreal, Toronto,
and Vancouver

Their concentration will likely mean new demands for
structural change and “accommodation”

For example, in March 2007, the Toronto Star reported a controversy
over the Hindu practice of dispersing cremated human remains in
moving water, that is to say, rivers and lakes in the Mississauga area.
Potential for growth of religious
intolerance and discrimination

The Census data show a marked increase in the number of
Canadians adopting non-mainstream religious identities, such as
Wicca and other New Religious Movements.

The only Christian denominations showing signs of growth are
evangelical Protestants, whose inclination is to express their form of
Christianity in public.

Even mainline Christian churches may become more conservative
and more like their evangelical counterparts.

These groups may also demand greater accommodation and
participation, challenging other Canadians to change the way we
interact in the public sphere.
Religious Intolerance and
Discrimination in Canada Today
Attitudes and Practices
Religious Intolerance
What polls and surveys say

Canadians have a generally positive view of
most religious groups

However, a significant minority are suspicious
of Muslims and Jews
 In
1991, an Angus Reid poll found that Sikhs were
the group with which Canadians felt least
comfortable
Only 13% of EDS respondents
identified religion as the source of
perceived discrimination
Total non-Aboriginal population
aged 15 and older
Male
Female
Visible minority population
Male
Female
Percentage
who
identified
religion as the
source of
perceived
discrimination
13%
11%
16%
10%
10%
9%
Total nonAboriginal
population
aged 15 and
older (Limit of
EDS)
Total nonAboriginal
population
aged 15 and
older times
percentage
22,445,490
402,470
10,947,760
11,497,730
2,999,850
1,443,120
1,556,730
188,190
214,270
99,450
50,910
48,550
Table 4. Religion as Source of Discrimination from Respondents who
Perceived Discrimination, Ethnic Diversity Survey, 2003
The population that was taken into account by the EDS consisted of
Canadians over 15 years of age who were not aboriginals.
However, 43% of reported hate crimes
have a religious motivation
(vs. Race 57%)
Motivation
Total Religion
Jewish
Islam (Muslim)
Religion unknown
Other religion
Catholic
No religion
Number
398
229
102
45
35
12
0
% of total
43
25
11
5
4
1
0
Table 5. Hate crime incidents by motivation in 12 major police forces in
Canada. Pilot study project by Statistics Canada 2002
Socio-economic impact of religious
intolerance

Jewish Canadian families, who are victims of religious
intolerance and discrimination, on average are wealthier
and better educated than the average Canadian family

Morton Weinfeld points out that, in 1991, about 22% of Jews
lived in households with an income over $100,000, three times
the rate for other Canadians.

See also N. Tomes, "Religion and Rate Returns to Human
Capital: Evidence from Canada," Canadian Journal of
Economics 16 (1983), R. Meng and J. Sentance, "Religion and
the Determination of Earnings: Further Results," The Canadian
Journal of Economics 17, no. 3 (1984).
Socio-economic impact of religious
intolerance

Muslim Canadian families, who also suffer
significant levels of religious intolerance and
discrimination, have among the lowest individual
income levels among all Canadians.

This is odd because Muslim Canadians as a
group have the second highest educational
attainment in the country (after Jewish
Canadians) and some 10% above the Canadian
average.
Appendix D, Chart 3: Individual Income
Levels and Religious Identity, Adults, 21+
years old, Canada, 2001 %
Graph provided
by Dr. P. Beyer,
University of
Ottawa and
used with
permission.
Appendix D, Chart 6: Comparative Income
Level and Educational Attainment according
to Religious Identity
Non-Immigrant
21-30 year-olds,
Selected Ethnic
Identities*,
Canada, 2001
(%)
Source:
Statistics
Canada, 2004.
Graph provided by
Dr. P. Beyer,
University of
Ottawa and used
with permission.
Other arenas of discrimination and
intolerance

Workplace issues: tolerance and
accommodation

Education: structures, practices and
culture

Women and religious intolerance and
discrimination
Other arenas of discrimination and
intolerance

Local politics, accommodation and conflict

Media coverage and bias

Religious intolerance on the Internet

Healthcare: the extent and limits of tolerance
Symbolic belonging: what – and
who – is Canadian?

Religious holiday accommodation:
practical and symbolic importance

The battle over haberdashery (turbans,
kirpans, hijabs, etc.)

The importance of symbols as markers of
boundaries, identity and solidarity
Addressing Religious
Intolerance and Discrimination
Some Ideas for Discussion
Protection of religious freedom and
diversity today

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1982)
Section 2
Everyone has the following fundamental freedoms:
a) freedom of conscience and religion;
b) freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of the
press and other media of communication;
c) freedom of peaceful assembly; and
d) freedom of association.

Canadian Multiculturalism Act (1988)

Canadian Human Rights Act (1985) – along with the
myriad provincial human rights codes
Protection of religious freedom and
diversity today

Supreme Court decisions
 R.
v. Big M Drug Mart Ltd., [1985] established
principles of “neutrality” of the state and law.
 Ont.
Human Rights Comm. v. SimpsonsSears, [1985] established obligation of
“reasonable accommodation” for employer.
Protection of religious freedom and
diversity today

Non-discrimination and reasonable
accommodation in the workplace
 Employment
 Canada
Equity Act (1995)
Labour Code (R.S., 1985, c. L-2)
Foundational principles

State must not favour any one religion

Practices cannot discriminate indirectly

Individuals must be accommodated

However, religious freedom in not unlimited
Structural issues not yet addressed by
legislative, judicial and administrative
changes

What is religion? What is religious
freedom?

Case of traditional aboriginal spirituality

The invisibility of Chinese religion
Some ideas on addressing religious
intolerance and discrimination
I.
Commit to making the issue a priority
II.
Allow religious diversity to inspire us to
question the structures of Canadian
society
III.
Promote education and dialogue
I. Making addressing intolerance
and discrimination a priority
1.
Making religious intolerance and discrimination a
priority by promoting religious rights and freedoms and
integrating them more fully into all initiatives to
promote multiculturalism.
In a study of 546 research projects sponsored by the Multiculturalism
Program from 2000-2004, only 19 related to religion in any significant
fashion. Six of these dealt with the after-effects of 9/11.
2.
Conducting more extensive study on the economic
disadvantages faced by Muslim Canadians.
II. Questioning structures
3.
Addressing the issue of Christian privilege more
thoroughly, both on the practical and structural levels.
4.
Adopting an open secularism (la laïcité ouverte) that
accepts the participation of religious communities in
public debates.
5.
Recognizing traditional Aboriginal spirituality in a way
that would allow Aboriginal peoples to control more
aspects of their own lives and communities.
III. Public education at all levels
6.
Promoting unbiased education about religion for all
students, and also for policy-makers, media
representatives and other stake-holders in public
debates.
7.
Sponsoring interfaith dialogue and cooperation,
capitalizing on existing ecumenical and interfaith
movements.
Direct inquiries to
David Seljak
Department of Religious Studies
St. Jerome’s University
in the University of Waterloo
dseljak@uwaterloo.ca
519-884-8111, ext. 28232