Zumdahl’s Chapter 1
Chemical Foundations
Chapter Contents
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Chemistry: “The Science
of All that’s Matter”
Theory and Experiment
Systemé Internationale
and English Units
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Notation and Multipliers
Error Analysis
Dimensional Analysis
Temperature
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Extensive Properties
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Intensive Properties
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E.g., Ekin = ½ mv 2
E.g.,  = m / V
Classification of Matter
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Mixtures
Compounds
Elements
Subatomic
CHEMISTRY:
The Science of All that’s Matter
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From subatomic to macroscopic properties
From static to dynamic properties
From shape to functionality
From electronic forces to molar energetics
Synthesis, Analysis, Characterization & Utility
Interactions of Matter with Matter and Light
Understanding Environmental Consequences
Experiment
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Observations
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Theory
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Importance of Records!
Inferences
Implications leading to
new experiments to
confirm or deny both
inferences and theories
Explanations
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Eternal
Reproducible
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and
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Paradigms
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Shifted by inconsistencies
Laws of Nature
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Tentative
Consistent with all
observations!
Suggest new experiments
Impotence postulates
Occam’s Razor
Systéme International Units
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MASS, the kilogram [ kg ]
LENGTH, the meter [ m ]
TIME, the second [ s ]
COUNT, the mole [ mol ] or NAv = 6.0221023
TEMPERATURE, the Kelvin [ K ]
ENERGY, the Joule [ J ] = 1 kg m2 s-2
FORCE, the Newton [ N ] = 1 J m-1
Scientific Notation and Multipliers
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Dealing with the very small and the very
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Scientific Notation: ± 9.999  10 ±99
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large
Addition & Subtraction need common powers.
Multiplication & Division: exponents add & subtract.
Scale units with Multipliers ( often by 10 ±3n )
10+12 Tera- 10+9 Giga- 10+6 Mega- 10+3 kilo10-1 deci- 10-2 centi- 10-3 milli- 10-6 icro-
Error Analysis
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Repeated experimental
values differ.
If tightly clustered, they are
PRECISE.
If their average falls near the
correct value, they are
ACCURATE.
Quoted as average value ±
uncertainty () with units!
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~2/3 fall within  of avg
Exact numbers have zero
uncertainty, e.g., 1 cal  4.184 J
Significant Figures
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Rules of Thumb:
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Multiplication & Division
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Addition & Subtraction
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Use the least significant digit of largest magnitude
Zeroes count as significant figures?
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Use the smaller number of significant figures
Captive & trailing zeroes count; leading don’t.
y = f(x1,x2,…) and y2 =  Xn2 (f / xn)2
Dimensional Analysis
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Add and subtract common units only!
Under multiplication and division, units
accumulate with + and – powers, respectively.
Solution sought must have units identical with
that accumulation, or it is not correct.
Factor method of unit conversion chains:
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[ 102 cm / 1 m ]3  [ 1 L / 103 cm3 ] or 1 m3 = 103 L
Temperature
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SI unit the Kelvin [ K ]
Because 0 K is absolute
0°C = + 273.15 K
0 K = – 273.15°C
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Different origin but the
same size units.
TF = 32°F + (9°F/5°C) TC
0 K = – 459.67 °F
98.6 °F = ? °C
Extensive Properties
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Scale with the AMOUNT or COUNT
Mass and number of moles are obviously
extensive.
Volume and energies so scale  extensive.
Temperature is not extensive!
–
2 hot bricks have twice the energy but not twice the
temperature of one
Intensive Properties
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Remain the same under increases in amount
or count. Temperature is intensive.
Density,  = m / V, is the ratio of two extensive
variables; so the amount cancels and  is 
intensive.
Phases of Matter
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Condensed Phases “incompressible”
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SOLID, maximally compacted & immobile
LIQUID, molecules not fixed but fluid yet still
adjacent to one another; of fixed density
Rarified Phases “compressible”
– GAS, fluid but nonadjacent molecules expand to fill
containers completely (by varying density)
– PLASMA, hot, ionized gas of charged atoms &
electrons
Classifications of Matter
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MIXTURES
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Separable by physical
means
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E.g., filtration or
chromatography
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Components in same
phase and domain
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Compounded of different
elements, but these can
be separated chemically
ELEMENTS
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Components in different
phases or domains
Homogeneous
COMPOUNDS
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Heterogeneous
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Identical building blocks,
atoms, react identically.
SUBATOMIC MATTER
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Protons, neutrons, and
electrons