From Africa to Afrocentric Innovations
Some Call “Jazz”
Prologue
Prologue - An Introduction to Afrocentric Music
• Afrocentric Origins of “Jazz”……………………………...3
• Eurocentric Documentation and Control of AfricanAmerican Music………...……..…………………………..6
• The Impact of Racism and Sexism……………………...X
• Summary……………………………………………………9
Afrocentric Origins of "Jazz"
Music, dance, and visual arts remain reliable means through which Africans communicate with God,
perpetuate their sociocultural history, and harmonize with nature. In America, music inherited a dominant role
in nurturing spiritual, intellectual, and philosophical aspects of African culture for displaced people in a
hostile environment. Throughout the history of America, the impact of African-American music has
gradually affected all who managed to shed their cultural biases long enough to witness the evolution of its
innovative beauty, grandeur, and cultural significance. It is small wonder, therefore, that so many people in
the world now want to claim African-American music as their own.
It is important to examine the African past carefully if we are to recognize the elements of African tradition
that lie at the foundation of African-American music and culture. Avoiding Afrocentric perspectives in
discussions of the development of American culture only postpones the inevitable serious study of the
music some call "jazz." Just as we examine European music from European antiquity to the present, we must
study the complete history of African-American music. Since African culture is much older, and more
obscure to Western readers, the task of surveying the history of the vast African continent is formidable. In
this study we can only manage to scratch the surface.
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The Afrocentric innovations that some call "jazz" are now recognized as Classic American Music and as an
American treasure. This music, the invention of Africans in America under the pressures and limitations of
an oppressive society, is America’s premier indigenous art form. Tracing the history of African-American
music carefully from African roots to the present leads to the discovery of the point at which "jazz" evolved
from the categories of "Nigger music" and "race records" to the more lofty status of an American art form. It
also forces the question, can "jazz" be referred to as "American" music when the people who created were
not recognized unconditionally as American (as opposed to African-American)?
The diversity of languages, sociocultural customs, religious practices, political structures, and metaphysical
systems among the numerous African nations served to undermine possibilities of unification among those
who later became captive "New World" slaves, especially within the regions that eventually became the
United States of America. An extremely eclectic culture was apparent even within the small radius of the
Gulf of Guinea, the region from which most slaves were obtained by means of bargaining or larceny. Some
areas of Africa remained untouched by slave traders. Other northern countries (particularly desert areas
such as Egypt) contributed only a few slaves. The difficulties in communicating between fellow Africans, as
well as the weak communication between Africans and Europeans, made it difficult for Africans to
appreciate and anticipate the severe consequences of the malfeasance that fell upon their continent. To
the foreign European slave traders, the social and cultural diversity within African society was interpreted
as uncivilized, disorganized, and backward.
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People say that defining "jazz" is a difficult task. Without a doubt, the music some call "jazz" is an AfricanAmerican invention evolved in the musical world essentially during the twentieth century. Its evolution from
traditional African music into an array of related forms involves African-American field hollers, spirituals,
blues, ragtime, classic "jazz," swing, rhythm and blues, bebop, cool, hard bop, free "jazz," funk, soul, fusion,
neoclassic "jazz," and rap music. Each new African-American musical invention retained elements of
traditional African music. It will certainly continue to evolve and retain Afrocentric musical vocabulary in the
next millennium.
A clear relationship exists between the African-American use of "blue notes" and similar traditional
African stylistic elements in music such as the traditional Fulani song "Nayo" (as sung by Juldeh
Camara).[i] Within the context of some African songs we hear emphasis on a pentatonic scale embellished
with a flexibility of pitch. These qualities were conspicuous characteristics of early rural blues. Certain
Baoulé traditional songs demonstrate a pitch set that has much in common with rural blues tonality.
Qualities identifiable with African-American Swing "feel" and "riff" technique, as well as the use of
ostinato patterns as grounding structures for polyrhythms and heterophony, have parallels in Malinké and
other African music south of the Sahara. A comparison between "All Blues" by Miles Davis with the bass
pattern heard in the Malinké "Dance of the Hunters" displays striking resemblance.[ii] The blue notes, calland-response patterns, and other musical elements and devices found in blues and "jazz" are also apparent
in various traditional musical forms throughout the African continent. African music is often directly
associated with dance and the multidimensional effect in most performance presentations.
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Eurocentric Documentation and Control of AfricanAmerican Music
People on the fringe of the progenitors’ culture generally define African-American creative expression.
This condition stems from the hegemony of Eurocentric discrimination. The contemporary AfricanAmerican community is less a victim of slave mentality and oppression than in the past, yet problems related
to the exploitation of African-American music continue to intensify. The recent reduction of AfricanAmerican "jazz" to "neoclassic" imitation by talented African-American musicians is telling. Clearly a
movement driven more by business capital than revolutionary artistic motivation, the music of the last two
decades stands in striking opposition to the legacy of evolutionary experimentation and innovations of
earlier years.
During the era of slave exploitation, language and culture were manipulated to erase African heritage from
the minds of Africans in the Americas and to promote negative images of things associated with Africa.
Terms such as "jazz," "serious music," "race records," and other politically charged labels perpetuate social
notions that foster racial division and economic control.
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According to many labeling practices in American society, African Americans produce "popular" music
regardless of the actual level of popularity enjoyed by a given style, or despite degrees of musical
sophistication and complexity involved. This "popularity," consequently, erodes the music’s credibility and
deems it unworthy of institutional support or serious study. Only European or certain EuropeanAmerican music are "serious" music. Labels change as needed, however. The increased popularity and
prestige of "jazz" finally brings forth the modern phrases "vernacular American music" and "America’s
classical music." Some innovators in America prefer to find their own labels, such as the Art Ensemble of
Chicago’s "Great Black Music" or, as Makanda Ken McIntyre puts it, simply "African-American music:”
Today there are many debates over the ownership of the music some call "jazz." While there is agreement
that the roots of African-American music are in Africa, some have always claimed that "jazz" evolved from a
mixture of almost equal proportions of African and European influences. Regardless of the inaccuracy of
the claim, this is a step up from earlier times when Nick LaRocca claimed that "jass" was a EuropeanAmerican invention with which African Americans had nothing to do. LaRocca claimed that his Original
Dixieland Jass Band invented "jass" and insisted that he and his musical colleagues were completely
unaware of (and therefore escaped the possible influence of) the music of African Americans in his native
New Orleans.
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If we are to believe the historical documentation of European-American writers, then Paul Whiteman was
the "King of Jazz" and Benny Goodman the "King of Swing," and George Gershwin made "jazz a lady."
[xxiii] Each musician brings something special to "jazz." Nonetheless, when the various stylistic forms of
African-American music are carefully and thoroughly examined from a more objective position, none of the
above claims to royalty can be justified in musical terms. European-American musicians have the economic
and social advantage over their African-American counterparts (as well as a greater percentage of
musicians), yet the evolution of "jazz" innovations has remained entrenched among African-American
musicians. If we extract the major innovators from the various sectors of "jazz" history, then it is undeniable
that "jazz" is a musical style invented and evolved primarily by African-American progenitors.
Because Eurocentric and Afrocentric musical worlds are most often segregated in America, Eurocentric
American "jazz" understandably exhibits different characteristics than the Afrocentric music of Scott
Joplin, Jelly Roll Morton, Louis Armstrong, Mary Lou Williams, Basie, Ellington, Bird, Monk, Coltrane,
Miles, Sun Ra, Ornette, and Cecil Taylor. This is a question not of musicianship or creativity but, rather,
of style and authenticity. Origins and originality itself cannot be fabricated or duplicated.
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Rhythm and blues artists such as Louis Jordan, Fats Domino, Little Richard, and others derived their
singing and instrumental style from the Afrocentric speech patterns, dance movements, and other
sociocultural nurturing on which they were reared. Rock and roll merely became a "distilled" derivative of
rhythm and blues. Since Elvis and other European-American artists had limited direct contact with
African-American culture, it is understandable that they could only create parodies of African-American
styles. Elvis even adopted the style, clothing, and fake "processed" hairdo of rhythm and blues artists of
the 1950s. Despite individual aesthetic preferences, the original creators of the songs Elvis "covered"
were indeed African-American.
Summary
Most American children know more about Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Picasso, Michelangelo, and
Rembrandt than about Ellington, Bird, Miles, Coltrane, Bearden, Sargent Johnson, and Augusta
Savage. Perhaps this is because an embarrassingly disproportionate number of the people who teach,
compose, perform, document, theorize, criticize, sell, and distribute innovative African-American music are
non-African-American. Braxton again discusses some possible reasons for the unfortunate and often
absurd notions and attitudes that many Americans hold regarding music.
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The fact that we have not had a real understanding of the great African Masters, the great Asian masters,
or that many of the great European white masters too have not been understood . . . is to do with the way
everything is defined in this time period. The notion that the Europeans are the superior races and that
every philosophical and scientific idea which has helped the cause of human evolution is related only to the
European male is a profound misuse of thinking. Yet this is what young children have to grow up under—the
weight of misdefinition, the weight of gradualism, of racism, of sexism. [xxvi]
I propose, therefore, that "jazz" have several subdivisions. There are distinct approaches involving AfricanAmerican, Latin, European-American, Asian-American, Asian, African, and European styles, for
instance. Each variation shares basic roots based on evolving American music transplanted from African
tradition. Of course, African music has been influenced by local environmental elements everywhere it
landed. Nevertheless, each subdivision of music is largely a factor of the specific sociocultural values,
attitudes, history, and styles of the various segregated units in which music practitioners find themselves. As
we grow closer socially, so too will we begin to produce music that is clearly (unhyphenated) American.
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People say that music is potentially a universal healing force capable of bringing peace, understanding, and
harmony to the inhabitants of our world. We just entered a new century. How much of the slave era bigotry,
selfishness, and ignorance that has retarded the progress of humanity will we take as baggage into the
present millennium? Can we find a few answers to relevant questions concerning solutions to our
contemporary social problems and strife within a careful study of Afrocentric innovation some call "jazz"?
"Jazz" has managed to bring people together from all backgrounds, occupations, and places on earth. Even
those who despise and discriminate against African-American people have not escaped their alluring music.
In time, given the opportunity, perhaps Afrocentric music might demonstrate even greater positive potential.
Reflected in the patterns retained in African-American music, sermons, quilting, painting, dance, and
nutritional arts are the oral histories, motivic patterns, and cultural nuances inherent within the songs of the
African griots. The psychological, educational, economic, and spiritual benefit of this rich heritage enabled
the Africans in America to endure severely debilitating slavery-era conditions.
The mentalities that slavery produced are extremely difficult to overcome. If the African-American music
some call "jazz" suffers today under adverse economic and social conditions worldwide, this is more a
consequence of its progenitors’ African-American identity than of any reasonable aesthetic criteria. The
introduction of dodecaphonic music, [xxviii] aleatory music, [xxix] musique concrète, [xxx] and minimalism into
European and certain American academic musical circles has received far less resistance and
condescension than the disrespectful and exploitative tendencies directed toward the influential art forms
created by African Americans.
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Bishop Desmond Tutu heads the Truth Council in South Africa. This transitional organization grants
amnesty to those who confess of atrocities committed under apartheid. Tutu feels that, as painful and
inadequate as this process may be, it is necessary to expose facts of history and to arrive at some measure
of truth that can aid in the promotion of healing throughout his country. Perhaps by looking squarely and
sincerely into the American mirror some call "jazz" we can achieve similar ends.
Prejudice, intolerance, and discrimination are vain and hollow luxuries in which none but the ignorant, the idle,
and the indolent can indulge. Courage, competence, and comradeship come in many colors, and these
characteristics have meaning to men who stand together in the face of adversity. [xxxi]
--------------------------------------------------[i] Mandinka and Fulani Music of the Gambia: Ancient Heart. Axiom 314-510 148-42. 1990. CD. Mandinka group:
Sukakata Suso, Karnnka Suso, Bolong Suso, Manjako Suso, Jewuru Kanuteh (kora); Mahamadou Suso, Mawudo
Suso, Salun Kuyateh (balafon); Saiko Suso, Lamin Suso (batakonkon); Dembo Kanuteh, Mahamadou Suso (dundungo);
Bobo Suso, Mahame Camara (voice); Fulani group: Juldeh Camara, Korreh Jallow (nyanyer, voice); Alieu Touray (flute);
Amajou Bah, Karimu Bah (calabash); Amadou Jallow (lala); Ousman Jallow (jimbeh); "Hamaba" "Nayo" "Dangoma"
"Sanjon Bilama" "Kumbusora" "Nyanyer Song" "Julajekereh" "Galoyabeh" "Lanbango" "Borasabana" "China Product."
[ii] African Tribal Music & Dances. Legacy International CD 328. No year listed. CD. No personnel listed. Music of the
Malinké: "Festival Music" "Solo for the Seron" "Hymn of Praise" "Percussion Instruments" "Festival of the Circumcision"
"Dance of the Hunters" "Dance of the Women" Music of the Baoulé and others: "Invocation, Entrance and Dance of the
Glaou" "Duet for Flutes" "Solo for Musical Bow" "Xylophone Solo" "Male Chorus and Harp" "Dance of the Witch
Doctor" "Sicco" "Toffi" "Ibonga" "Gnounba Gnibi" "Dianka Bi" "Sibi Saba" "Sindhio" "Didrenquo" "Bonomiollo."
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[iii] Interval composed of 3 whole-steps.
[iv] Fetish Folk of West Africa. p. 78.
[v] See Mojo Hand: The Lightnin Hopkins Anthology. 1993 Rhino Records (R2 71226)
[vi] Voodoo Ceremony in Haiti: Recorded Live on Location. Olympic Records 6113. 1974. LP. No personnel listed.
"Voodoo Drums" "Nibo Rhythms" "Prayer to Shango" "Petro Rhythms" "Nago Rhythms" "Invocation to Papa Legba"
"Dahomey Rhythms: ‘The Paul’l’" "Maize Rhythm" "Diouba Rhythm: ‘Cousin Zaca’."
[vii] Robert Milligan, Fetish Folk of West Africa (New York: Fleming H. Revel, 1912), p. 78.
[viii] Ibid.
[ix] Ibid., p. 79.
[x] A way of dividing a fixed length in two sections expressed in mathematical terms as b/a = a/a+b (also known as Golden
Mean, Golden Ratio).
[xi] Music is My Mistress, p. 260.
[xii] Albert Murray, The Blue Devils of Nada: A Contemporary Approach to Aesthetic Statement (New York: Pantheon,
1996), p. 206.
[xiii] Liner notes from McIntyre’s album Home. Steeple Chase SCS-1039, 1975. McIntyre plays alto sax, flute, oboe,
bassoon, and bass clarinet on this recording.
[xiv] Duke Ellington, Music Is My Mistress (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1973), p. 436.
[xv] Music Is My Mistress, p. 412.
[xvi] Ibid., p. 244.
[xvii] Lock, Forces in Motion: The Music and Thoughts of Anthony Braxton (New York: Da Capo, 1988), pp. 276–77.
[xviii] Oxford University Press, 1996.
[xix] Christopher Harlos, "Jazz Autobiography," in Representing Jazz, ed. Krin Gabbard (Durham: Duke University, 1995),
p. 134.
[xx] Steeple Chase SCS-1039, 1975. McIntyre plays alto sax, flute, oboe, bassoon, and bass clarinet on this recording.
[xxi] The number of people referred to as minorities in America collectively compose over 50 percent of the population.
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[xxii] James Lincoln Collier, Jazz: The American Theme Song (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 200.
[xxiii] The latter idea was Leonard Bernstein’s.
[xxiv] Cornell Chronicle , November 30, 1995, p. 6.
[xxv] Gene Lees, Cats of Any Color: Jazz Black and White (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 238.
[xxvi] Ibid.
[xxvii] Ibid., p. 313.
[xxviii] Pertaining to twelve-tone musical technique or compositions.
[xxix] Music involving the introduction of chance or unpredictability into the process of performance or composition.
[xxx] A conceptual term first coined by Pierre Schaeffer in Paris around 1948, musique concrète involves the recording of any
number of sounds (voice, street noises, musical instruments, sounds of nature, etc.) that undergo electronic manipulation,
modulation, and enhancement in the recording studio.
[xxxi] Phillip T. Drotning. Black Heroes In Our Nation’s History (New York, Washington Square Press, 1970). p. ix.
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