Chapter 8
Training & Development
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Module 1: Foundations of
Training & Learning
• Training
– Systematic acquisition of skills, concepts,
or attitudes resulting in improved
performance in another environment
– Basic foundation for training programs is
learning
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Learning
• Relatively permanent change in behavior &
human capabilities produced by experience
& practice
• 3 broad categories of learning outcomes
– Cognitive outcomes
– Skill-based outcomes
– Affective outcomes
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Performance
• Actions or behaviors relevant to
organization’s goals; can be measured in
terms of each individual proficiency
• Can often be directly observed
• We assume learning takes place from
observing performance
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Training, Learning, & Performance
Training increases probability of
learning, and learning increases
probability of better job performance.
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Training Needs Analysis
• 3-step process
– Organizational analysis
– Task analysis
– Person analysis
• Required to develop systematic understanding
of where training is needed, what needs to be
trained, & who will be trained
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Organizational Analysis
• Examines org. goals, available
resources, & org. environment to
determine where training should be
directed
• Takes into account climate of
organization & its subunits
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Task Analysis
• Examines what employees must do to
perform job properly
• Can consist of
• Developing task statements
• Determining homogeneous task clusters
• Identifying KSAOs required for job
• May also include assessment of competencies
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Person Analysis
• Identifies which individuals within
organization should receive training &
what kind of instruction they need
• Assessments of trainee personality,
ability, & experience increasingly
being used as part of needs analysis
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Learning Process in Training
• Trainee characteristics
– Goal orientation
• Performance orientation
– Concerned with doing
well
– Experience level
– Trainee motivation
– Trainee readiness
• Mastery orientation
– Concerned with
increasing competence
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Characteristics Affecting Learning
& Transfer Outcomes
Figure 8.2
Characteristics Affecting
Learning and Transfer Outcomes
Source: Adapted from Baldwin &
Ford (1988).
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Learning & Motivational Theories
Applied to Training
• Reinforcement theory
– Learning results from association between
behaviors & rewards
– Positive reinforcement
• Desired behavior followed by reward
– Behavior modification
• Simple recognition & feedback can be effective in
increasing performance
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Learning & Motivational Theories
Applied to Training (cont'd)
• Social learning theory proposes that there
are many ways to learn including:
– Behavioral modeling
1. Observe actual job incumbents demonstrate positive
modeling behaviors
2. Rehearse before using role-playing
3. Receive feedback on rehearsal
4. Try behavior on the job
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Cognitive & Social Learning Theory
• Broad approach including:
– Self-efficacy
• Belief in one’s capability to perform
– Goal setting
• Specific, difficult goals direct attention & improve
performance
– Feedback
• Knowledge of results of one’s actions
• Enhances motivation, learning, & performance
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Principles of Learning
• Practice & overlearning
– Active practice
• Actively participating in training/work tasks
– Automaticity
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• When tasks can be performed with little
attention
• Occurs after demonstration of mastery
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Fidelity
• Extent to which task trained is similar to
task required by job
– Physical fidelity
• Extent to which training task mirrors physical
features of task performed on job
– Psychological fidelity
• Extent to which training task helps trainees develop
KSAOs necessary to perform job
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Principles of Learning (cont'd)
• Whole learning
• When entire task is practiced at once
• More effective when complex task has relatively
high organization
• Part learning
• When subtasks are practiced separately & later
combined
• More effective when complex task has low
organization
• e.g., surgeons & pilots
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Principles of Learning (cont'd)
• Massed practice
• Individuals practice task continuously &
without rest (e.g., cramming for test)
• Distributed practice
• Rest intervals between practice sessions
• Generally results in more efficient learning
& retention than massed practice
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Learning Organizations
• Companies that emphasize continuous learning,
knowledge sharing, & personal mastery
• Additional features
1. Emphasize problem solving & innovation
2. Develop systems that enhance knowledge sharing
3. Encourage flexibility & experimentation
4. Value well-being & development of all employees
5. Encourage employees to find or make opportunities
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Learning Organizations
• Global changes & challenges require
emphasis on global learning organizations
Figure 8.3
Global Learning
Organizations
Source: Tolbert,
McLean, & Myers (2002).
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Module 2:
Content & Methods of Training
• Training methods
– 4 basic principles
1. Present relevant information & content to be learned
2. Demonstrate KSAOs to be learned
3. Create opportunities for trainees to practice skills
4. Provide feedback to trainees during & after practice
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On-Site Training Methods
• On-the-job training
– Trainees observe & learn from more
experienced employees
• Apprenticeship
– Formal program used to teach a skilled trade
• Job rotation
– Employees move to various jobs, departments,
or areas of company
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Off-Site Training Methods
• Classroom lectures
• Programmed instruction
– Linear programming
– Branching programming
• Simulators
•
•
•
•
Controlled reproducibility
Safety considerations
Learning considerations
Low-cost
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Distance Learning &
Computer-Based Training
• Distance learning
• Can occur across multiple sites at once
• More affordable, learning-tailored alternative to live
instruction
• I-O research just beginning
• Computer-based training
• Allow trainees to individualize their learning experience
• Trainees have more control over instruction
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Training “Critical Thinking”
• Critical thinking skills require active
involvement in applying principles under
instruction
• Advances in technology make critical thinking
in workplace more important than ever
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Transfer of Training
• Degree to which trainees apply knowledge,
skills, & attitudes gained in training to their job
• Transfer of training climate
– Workplace characteristics that either inhibit or
facilitate transfer of training
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Module 3: Evaluating
Training Programs
• Training evaluation
– Systematic collection of descriptive &
judgmental information that can be used to
make effective training decisions
• Several purposes of training evaluations
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Training Criteria
• Kirkpatrick’s 4-level model
– Reaction criteria (Level 1)
– Learning criteria (Level 2)
Internal
criteria
– Behavioral criteria (Level 3)
– Result criteria (Level 4)
External
criteria
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Augmented framework of
Kirkpatrick’s model
– 1) Reaction
• Affective reactions
• Utility judgments
– 2) Learning
– 3) Transfer
– 4) Results
• Immediate knowledge
• Knowledge retention
• Behavior/skill demonstration
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Utility Analysis
• Benefits of training programs based on:
– # of individuals trained
– Difference in job performance between trained &
untrained employees
– Length of time training expected to influence
performance
– Variability in job performance in untrained employees
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Examining the Validity of Training
Programs
•
•
•
•
Training validity
Transfer validity
Intraorganizational validity
Interorganizational validity
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Training Evaluation Designs
• Strongest training evaluation designs include:
• Random assignment of participants to
conditions
• Control group
• Measures obtained before & after training
• Pretest Posttest Control Group Design
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Special Topics in
Training Evaluations
• EEO issues
• Organizations should document training
practices & programs thoroughly
• Special consideration of age discrimination
• Training/coaching for tests
• In general, score gains from coaching are
small
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Module 4: Specialized Training
Programs
• Development
– Formal education, job experiences,
mentoring relationships, & assessments
of personality & abilities that help
employees prepare for future
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Management & Leadership
Development
• Assessment centers
– Evaluate organizational, leadership, &
communication skills
– Managers with high potential generally invited
to participate
• 360 degree feedback
– Received positively & effective at improving
performance
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Management & Leadership
Development (cont'd)
• Coaching
– Practical, goal-focused form of personal, oneon-one learning for busy professionals
– Practical, flexible, targeted form of
individualized learning for managers/executives
• Informal training
– Include specific job assignments, experiences,
& activities outside work
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Specialized Training Programs
• Sexual harassment awareness training
– Quid pro quo
– Hostile working environment
• EEOC encourages following steps:
– Clearly communicate a zero tolerance policy
– Establish an effective grievance process
– Take immediate & appropriate action when
employee complains
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Sexual Harassment Training
• Supervisors should receive additional
training beyond what employees receive
• Effective in increasing knowledge of &
ability to identify sexual harassment
• More field research necessary to understand
short- & long-term effects
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Specialized Training Programs
• Ethics training
– Appropriate approach likely is to use both
selection & training to increase likelihood
that employees will perform jobs ethically
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Cross-Cultural Training (CCT)
• Critical in helping expatriates adapt to
new environments
• Symptoms of culture shock
• Homesickness
• Irritability
• Loss of ability to work effectively
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Cross-Cultural Training
• Designed to prepare individuals from one
culture to interact more effectively with
individuals from different cultures
• Cultural assimilator
– Culture-specific assimilator
– Culture-general assimilator
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8 Dimensions of
Intercultural Sensitivity
1. Comfort with other cultures
2. Positive evaluation of other cultures
3. Understanding cultural differences
4. Empathy for people in other cultures
5. Open-mindedness
6. Sharing cultural differences with others
7. Seeking feedback about how one is received in
other cultures
8. Adaptability
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Permissions
Slide 1: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, Karl Weatherly/Getty Images, Source Image ID: SP000304,
Filename: 27012.JPG
Slide 6: Figure 8.1 adapted from Goldstein, I. L., & Ford, J. K. (2002). Training in organizations: Needs assessment,
development, and evaluation, 4th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. © 2002. Reprinted with permission of Wadsworth, a
division of Thomson Learning: www.thomsonrights.com
Slide 12: Figure 8.2 extrapolated from Baldwin, T. T., & Ford, J. K. (1988). Transfer of training: A review and directions
for future research. Personnel Psychology, 41, pp. 63-105. Used by permission of Personnel Psychology, Bowling
Green, OH.
Slide 16: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, Filename: OS14057.JPG
Slide 21: Figure 8.3 from Tolbert, A. S., McLean, G. N., & Myers, R. C. (2002). Creating the global learning organization.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 26, pp. 463-472. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science. Used by permission.
Slide 24: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, Doug Menuez/Getty Images, Source Image ID: ED000830,
Filename: 41290.JPG
Slide 43: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, Cartesia/Getty Images, Source Image ID: TR004882, Filename:
BS17075.JPG
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