High Reliability
Schools
1998
Reflection
Cognitive Research points
to Conceptions of the
Reflective Teacher
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constructivist theory
experiential learning
the thinking of novice and expert
teachers
Reflective Teachers...
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monitor the effects of actions as well as
the cognitive processes employed in
decision making
upon encountering novel situations or
planning future lessons, reflective
teachers attend to them, make
inferences or hypotheses, and mentally
check these “hunches” by looking for
relationships with prior experiences or
other ideas stored in memory
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Teachers then make tentative decisions
for action and play them out mentally to
identify possible consequences
Finally, they choose and implement a
course of action. They further evaluate
the action and begin the process again
Studies of novice and
expert teachers
demonstrate that...
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novices are less able to quickly think
through a situation than are experts
Two explanations for this...
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First, information is organized into a
network of related facts, concepts,
generalizations, and experiences (called
schemata)
Experts have richly connected
schemata to draw upon when making
decisions, while those of novices are
“leaner” and less elaborate
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Second, experienced teachers have
stored automatic scripts, allowing them
to handle common routines almost
without conscious thought
Novices, on the other hand, have few
automatic routines and must
consciously think through every
decision
Critical Theory
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One important goal of education is to
develop the intellectual moral, and
social dispositions that predispose
individuals to accept those ways of life
that are consistent with sharing the
rights and responsibilities of citizenship
in a democratic society
To reach this goal teachers need to
engage in what is referred to as “critical
reflection”
For Example...
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A teacher who wishes to promote
nondiscrimination will assure that all
students have an opportunity to
participate by thinking carefully about
special privileges
Motivation and Caring
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Reflective teachers are motivated to
grow
They believe that they can make a
difference in the lives of their students, in
their schools, and in their communities
Teachers must be willing to take risks
and to learn continuously
Professional Knowledge
Base
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content
students
pedagogy
context
prior experience
personal views and values
scripts
Content
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First, the teacher possesses a deep
understanding of the subject matter and
curriculum being taught
Students
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Next, the teacher must consider the
student being taught-- their cultural
backgrounds, development, and
learning styles
Without this understanding, the teacher
will not be able to decide on which
pedagogical approach to use
Pedagogy
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Pedagogy comes in two forms:
(a) generic methods and theories
applicable to any subject area; and
(b) pedagogical content knowledge
Context
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Teachers must also consider the context
in which the event is happening
Context includes time of day; the
cultural backgrounds of the parents and
community; and school, district and
regional policies
What works in one situation may not
work in another
Prior Experiences
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Teachers must be aware of and value
prior experiences
Reflective teachers explore how the
present situation links to their own prior
experiences-- what they know and have
experienced about the students, the
content being taught, the methods being
employed, and the present context-before taking the best course of action
Personal and Social Values
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Values are formed by one’s family,
personal encounters, readings, and life
experiences
Personal and social value systems have
a profound influence on teachers’ dayto-day teaching decisions
Scripts
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The first type of script allows a teacher
to behave automatically while focusing
on more critical issues
For example, the teacher who can
check on a student by walking over to
the student’s desk while still lecturing is
employing an automatic script
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The second set of scripts guides the
thinking process, and includes the
questions reflective teachers ask
themselves to analyze a situation and
plan the next course of action
One might refer to this second set of
scripts as the habits of metacognition
Feelings
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Feelings often have a huge
influence on our ability to reflect-- to
interpret and respond to a situation
Sometimes, frustration and anger
make it impossible to delve into the
professional knowledge base or
construct new meaning
Reflective thought may be
temporarily “frozen” by intense
feelings of frustration and anger
Action
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Teaching decisions usually relate to
action
Planning occurs before teaching
During the implementation of
instruction, many decisions are made
“on your feet”
After the act of teaching, evaluation of
the teaching decisions takes place
Constructing Knowledge
and Meaning
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(1) Teachers are personally involved in
a specific experience and choose to
attend to some aspect of the experience
(2) Teachers begin to analyze the
information gathered to develop mental
representations- or theories- that help
them interpret the situation at hand
They may use metacognitive scripts to
ask themselves key questions to
understand the events better
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New internal patterns of thinking are
initiated externally through dialogue with
a more skilled or knowledgeable
individual
Teachers’ metacognitive scripts guide
the reflections, questions, and
considerations make when acquiring
new information
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(3) Once they have clearly defined the
situation, reflective teachers develop
possible hypotheses to explain the
events and guide further action
(4) After consideration of the
consequences of each action, teachers
implement an action plan
The cycle begins again when the
consequences of the action are
observed and analyzed
Characteristics of the
Autonomous Teacher
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Efficacy refers to the teachers’ belief
that they can have an impact on
children and schools
Efficacious teachers are willing to
experiment and take risks because they
believe they can make a difference in
the lives of their students
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Flexibility is important because
reflection requires taking another
perspective-- looking at the world
through another’s eyes to find new
meanings and interpretations
Reflective teachers are socially
responsible
They care about the democratic
foundations of America and strive to
encourage socially responsible actions
in their students
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Consciousness (which is similar to
metacognition) refers to the awareness
of one’s own thinking and decision
making
While intuitive teaching is certainly
valuable, it can make communication
with a novice difficult
The precision of language required to
clarify one’s own thinking-- or that of
others-- clearly promotes deeper
reflection and awareness of meaning