Discussion prompts
1
Table of Contents
1
Read the following selections from Mao Zedong’s Report on an Investigation of the
Hunan Revolutionary Movement, prepared in early 1927, just months before the White
Terror of Chiang Kai-shek. In this report, how does Mao Zedong attempt to convince the
CCP to align with the peasant movement? ............................................................................. 3
2
Compare Mao Zedong's Report on an Investigation of the Hunan Revolutionary
Movement, which you have already read, to the Chapter 4 of Marx and Engel's
Communist Manifesto. Is Mao a Marxist? How or how not? Discuss. ...................................... 3
3
In one or two sentences, define the term “socialist world economy.” ..................................... 3
4
What might the early PRC have looked like if China had truly pursued a moderate
coalition government committed to "New Democracy"? ........................................................ 3
5
What is Soviet Union’s legacy for contemporary China? What is the nature of the
relationship between Russia and China today? Is it different from 1989? What about
1949? Please base your discussion on the articles linked below: ............................................. 4
6
What are your thoughts of the account of the “nameless individual” from the book Mao’s
People, by Michael Frolic? ..................................................................................................... 4
7
Below you will find translations of (1) Mao Zedong’s speech on “Letting the Hundred
Flowers Blossom,” delivered in February of 1957 (later revised and published), and (2) a
reflection on Mao’s speech written 30 years later by Liu Binyan, who was present when
the speech was originally delivered. How does Mao approach the problem of maintaining
ideological unity in communist China? How are his intentions interpreted by later
generations? ......................................................................................................................... 5
8
What, in your opinion, was the significance of China’s Cultural Revolution? What do you
think happened during the Cultural Revolution? .................................................................... 5
9
How would you characterize the Sino-US Rapprochement? What roles did ideology and
realpolitik play in Mao’s decisions during the Cultural Revolution? ......................................... 6
10 Why was the author placed in this terrible state of solitary confinement? .............................. 7
11 Based on what you have read, how does the system of crime and punishment work
during the Cultural Revolution? ............................................................................................. 7
12 How do you prove someone's innocence during the Cultural Revolution? ............................... 7
13 Who was in charge of the prison? What does this fact tell us about the participants of the
Cultural Revolution? .............................................................................................................. 7
14 What do these images tell us about the Cultural Revolution? How do these images shake
our assumptions about this period in Chinese history? ........................................................... 7
Discussion prompts
2
15 Who was responsible for the chaos of the Cultural Revolution? Was it Mao, the Gang of
Four, the Red Guards, or the ordinary Chinese who sometimes betrayed their own
families and colleagues? Does it matter? What other aspects of the Cultural Revolution
should we also pay attention to? ........................................................................................... 8
16 Why might Mao Zedong have preferred “rightists” coming to power in the West? .................. 8
17 Please read the prose poem Jiang Qing claimed to be written to her by Mao before his
death in September, 1976. What does the poem say about the end of the Maoist era? Do
you believe it was written by Mao Zedong? ........................................................................... 8
18 How would you describe the changes that took place in Chinese communism between
1921 and 1945? ..................................................................................................................... 9
19 The notion of "struggle" was a key concept utilized throughout the history of the Chinese
communist party from its founding in 1921 to the death of Mao in 1976. How does the
idea of struggle manifest itself in this history? Are there periods of more intensified
struggle than others? ............................................................................................................ 9
20 What is the importance of the concept in the history of the Chinese communist party? .........10
Discussion prompts
1
3
Read the following selections from Mao Zedong’s Report on an Investigation of the
Hunan Revolutionary Movement, prepared in early 1927, just months before the
White Terror of Chiang Kai-shek.
In this report, how does Mao Zedong attempt to convince the CCP to align with the
peasant movement?
One of the problems of the CCP at that point was the lack of strength in numbers. Peasants
would not only add greatly to the numbers, but they would also be present in the whole
country, where the proletariat was not only small, but mainly limited to the cities. Another
good point is that this great number of new allies comes with a relatively smaller number of
new scapegoats: the local gentry and land-owners, who are thereby incorporated into the
ranks of the “bourgeoisie”. The whole process would cleanly divide the general population
into “revolutionaries” and “bourgeoisie” and change the CCP’s game from a limited action to a
nationwide movement.
2
Compare Mao Zedong's Report on an Investigation of the Hunan Revolutionary
Movement, which you have already read, to the Chapter 4 of Marx and Engel's
Communist Manifesto. Is Mao a Marxist? How or how not? Discuss.
He is a Marxist in as far as his actions are based in the idea of improvements for the people,
although he has shifted his understanding of what constitutes the people from the proletariat
(who represent the most suppressed of people in the Western countries) to the peasants (who
form the largest group of the “suppressed” in China). In itself, this pragmatic shift is no reason
to regard him as less as a Marxist, as the basic reasoning behind his revolution is the same.
Also, the idea of aligning the Marxist movement with other movements present in the country
(i.e. the Nationalists) is nothing out of the ordinary.
However, if being a Marxist means following the original Marxist ideas to the letter, without
veering off from it, then Mao Zedong is a heretic from the movement.
3
In one or two sentences, define the term “socialist world economy.”
It’s an economy that encloses all the socialist countries of the world, and is closed in on itself,
while remaining open to brother socialist economies.
4
What might the early PRC have looked like if China had truly pursued a moderate
coalition government committed to "New Democracy"?
With a less rigorous alignment to the Stalinist Soviet Union, and a higher degree of moderate
mercantile capitalism, the early PRC could very quickly have looked pretty much like the
modern China we see today, at least when it comes to the distribution of labour, ownership,
and political developments. There would, however, also likely have been some differences,
especially where international relations are concerned: those would most likely still have been
geared towards the Socialist brother nations. I could imagine a Yugoslav model, with stronger
bonds within the Socialist family, also partly due to a sheer lack of available commercially
interesting neighbours.
Discussion prompts
5
4
What is Soviet Union’s legacy for contemporary China? What is the nature of the
relationship between Russia and China today? Is it different from 1989? What about
1949? Please base your discussion on the articles linked below:
I get the impression that today’s relationship with Russia is very much based on the see-saw
movement of politics over the last 70 or so years. China appears to clearly keep its distance
from any kind of disturbance within Russia or in its periphery, while commiserating with it in
their position of a socialist brother nation. There is an obvious tension based on history and
also current economic developments between the two. And of course, China is making certain
to come out a winner from political struggles, as any other nation would as well.
Besides these obvious background story, China is very much interested in avoiding support to
any developments that could give the impression of being open to change within its own
borders, especially when it comes to Taiwan and Tibet, but also other slightly volatile regions
like Xinjiang, with its large Muslim population demanding specific treatment. Any
development involving dissent, separation or redrawing of borders would be detrimental to
internal politics and are therefore kept at bay on the international level.
6
What are your thoughts of the account of the “nameless individual” from the book
Mao’s People, by Michael Frolic?
The whole story makes me think of a cartoon I saw many years ago, from the German
Democratic Republic:
The nameless individual seems to be a pretty straight shooter, maybe a little naïve at the start,
but willing to address any practical issues rooted in uninformed decisions further up the
hierarchy. He behaves just like anyone around him, but has the bad luck of trusting someone
near to him, his girlfriend, and getting in the way of fallout from higher up the hierarchy.
It appears to me that this has “control state” written all over it. In order to survive you have to
be able to rely only on yourself, and keep your mouth shut, even if you see that things are not
going all right. Don’t trust anyone and keep pottering on: in essence this reminds me very
much of highly hierarchic periods in the Chinese empire where the officials were the only ones
to give orders and everyone else was basically forced to follow. But this is worse: you cannot
even trust your family and friends, as they might be forced to speak out against you in order to
Discussion prompts
5
save themselves. Plus, you even have to testify against your past self … if this doesn’t create
paranoia in the population, nothing will.
7
Below you will find translations of (1) Mao Zedong’s speech on “Letting the Hundred
Flowers Blossom,” delivered in February of 1957 (later revised and published), and
(2) a reflection on Mao’s speech written 30 years later by Liu Binyan, who was
present when the speech was originally delivered. How does Mao approach the
problem of maintaining ideological unity in communist China? How are his intentions
interpreted by later generations?
The speech seems to indicate that everyone should be free to give an opinion in order to
change what is wrong with the way China is being run at the time. Of course, nothing
drastically clamouring against the regime itself would be acceptable, but whatever moves
things forward in the direction intended by the CCP would be wonderful.
This was the basic idea, but reading between the lines (and with the benefit of 60 years of
hindsight, of course), things look a lot different: freedom of speech is a double-sided knife: on
the one hand, one might feel free to express criticism, but just who gets to decide if your
criticism is productive or counter-revolutionary, especially in view of the already developing
see-saw movement of official political lines? Also, I have to ask myself to which degree this
“Hundred Flowers” movement wasn’t designed from the beginning to expose any critics and
thus remove internal opposition at the root, while simultaneously highlighting any obvious
opposition?
Of course, the fear of being exposed for uttering opinions that could be regarded as counterrevolutionary would lead to everybody only hearing the official jargon and phrases, thus
ensuring that novel ideas might not spread across the population. But at what price? Isn’t this
exactly the way to build up ideological steam that will lead to a massive revolutionary
explosion, removing those in power from their place?
I am wondering to which degree all of these actions have not simply been to the benefit of
retaining the CCP and its glorious leaders in power, regardless of the fate of the working
masses, be they workers or farmers? It seems to me that many of the leaders of the CCP or
the GMD before them didn’t have a clue what was REALLY going on in the provinces (as
confirmed by Liu Binyan’s text), and were only concerned with trying to apply Marxist/Stalinist
theories to the situation in China, and with trying to stay on top while doing so and reaping the
benefits…
8
What, in your opinion, was the significance of China’s Cultural Revolution? What do
you think happened during the Cultural Revolution?
At first sight – in a nutshell – it looks as if Mao was having a political tantrum for losing his best
play friend, the Soviet Union, and was taking it out on his fellow countrymen. Of course, the
political implications are more complex than that, but that’s basically how it appears.
Of course, Mao Zedong would be concerned by the apparent slipping of the Soviet Union into
the arms of the Capitalist world, and especially the USA, for reasons of security and Socialist
Discussion prompts
6
collaboration, but that seems a little unlikely to have been the main reason to start the
Cultural Revolution in its final form. Let’s face it: the Soviet Union had stopped being a model
nation for China a while before that already, and Mao had already changed Chinese policies to
no longer resemble those of the Soviet Union or the ideas of Komintern. So why the obsession
with the change in Soviet policies? I think it has more to do with developments in China itself
than anything else and the whole international politics angle was a smokescreen to rouse the
Chinese population, and especially the youth. In the end it looks very much like a “divide and
rule” scheme within the population of one state: by firing up the revolutionary spirit of the
students, and opposing them to all things “not revolutionary” (to be defined by Mao, of
course), he would keep everyone busy and off balance until such problems as the famine or
other widespread issues could be taken care of. And if that “taking care of” involves taking
down a couple of internal enemies, all the better.
In fact, he is employing the exact same tactics to weaken his own government (that has been
gaining power over the years), that he used to come into power in the first place. As long as
he was able to keep the “new” revolutionaries in check, this would be no problem. Or so he
thought. In the end, it is all about power, and staying in power.
9
How would you characterize the Sino-US Rapprochement? What roles did ideology
and realpolitik play in Mao’s decisions during the Cultural Revolution?
Mao had managed to navigate China into a situation where internationally, it had alienated
the Soviet Union on an ideological level, and where some of the people were starting to figure
out that they were being manipulated for the sake of an apparent internal power struggle
amongst their leaders, to the detriment of the population. Although Mao might still have been
under the impression that he was trying to keep things together for the sake of the revolution
and potentially the people of China (and that is looking at his motives VERY kindly, personally I
think he was a power hungry paranoid populist), the rapprochement with the USA was
obviously guided by fear of powerloss, and nothing else. His bid to win the USA as an ally,
albeit one held at arm’s length, was probably a panic reaction rather than anything else. He
might also have realised that whichever Socialist brother he confides in, he would be in danger
of being replaced, so he turned to the one party outside of the game worth allying himself
with: the USA.
Mao had managed to navigate China into a situation where internationally, it had alienated
the Soviet Union on an ideological level, and where some of the people were starting to figure
out that they were being manipulated for the sake of an apparent internal power struggle
amongst their leaders, to the detriment of the population. Although Mao might still have been
under the impression that he was trying to keep things together for the sake of the revolution
and potentially the people of China (and that is looking at his motives VERY kindly, personally I
think he was a power hungry paranoid populist), the rapprochement with the USA was
obviously guided by fear of powerloss, and nothing else. His bid to win the USA as an ally,
albeit one held at arm’s length, was probably a panic reaction rather than anything else. He
might also have realised that whichever Socialist brother he confides in, he would be in danger
of being replaced, so he turned to the one party outside of the game worth allying himself
with: the USA.
Discussion prompts
10
7
Why was the author placed in this terrible state of solitary confinement?
It is unclear what the original offence was, but based on the words from the guards he had
committed a crime against the guidelines put out by Chairman Mao in his speeches and
publications.
11
Based on what you have read, how does the system of crime and punishment work
during the Cultural Revolution?
The system works on the personal and collective interpretations of Chairman Mao’s words
alone. In addition, these interpretations are supported by a general feeling of fear of
repression by fellow revolutionaries.
12
How do you prove someone's innocence during the Cultural Revolution?
You cannot prove your innocence. It’s as simple as that.
13
Who was in charge of the prison? What does this fact tell us about the participants of
the Cultural Revolution?
The prison was apparently being run by random Red Guards, assisted by inmates doing the
manual work. The bad cooking, and dirty and unkempt surroundings attest to this, as do the
sly signs of commiseration by some of the inmates serving the food, etc.
14
What do these images tell us about the Cultural Revolution? How do these images
shake our assumptions about this period in Chinese history?
For one thing, it appears that Mao was not as alone with his interpretation of Socialism as he
had himself thought: not only were his works translated into other languages, but he was
clearly able to export his ideas to other countries, as witnessed by his influence on Pol Pot and
his followers. The internal struggles in China itself appear to have been no hindrance to export
the ideas into other regions of the world.
The idea of teaching French based on the Little Red Book comes across as slightly ridiculous,
especially with a vocabulary that might not go down all that well in France, and would most
certainly turn out to be absolutely useless in daily life. 
The first image (Black Panthers), however, was the one that resonated most with me. As much
as Mao and his interpretations of Socialism have been detrimental not just in China, but
elsewhere, it is noteworthy that it clearly had added a spark to the Black Movement in the
USA, igniting a movement that took a completely different direction, but appears to at least
partly be an export from the PRC.
Discussion prompts
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8
Who was responsible for the chaos of the Cultural Revolution? Was it Mao, the Gang
of Four, the Red Guards, or the ordinary Chinese who sometimes betrayed their own
families and colleagues? Does it matter? What other aspects of the Cultural
Revolution should we also pay attention to?
Although many of the practical and day-to-day negative aspects of the Cultural Revolution
were by the hands of the Red Guards, clearly the blame must be placed on Mao for inciting the
movement in the first place. It is true that he had – once more – underestimated the
magnitude of a development he had sparked, but ultimately hi is still responsible. The Gang of
Four would not have been in a similar position of power to impose their will without Mao’s
influential words, the Red Guards might not have been created to start with or would have
been much less powerful otherwise, and as for ordinary Chinese betraying their family and
colleagues … this would not even have been an issue if the suppressive situation had not been
created in the first place by Mao and his followers. So yes: ultimately I blame Mao alone.
16
Why might Mao Zedong have preferred “rightists” coming to power in the West?
He would have preferred the rightists, because he could more easily think of them as
“different”. Those were the enemy in its purest form and I can only wonder if he was actually
able to see a distinction between different Capitalist currents. I can see how this approach
would be simpler and allow for clearer separation between “us” and “them” and more
outspoken criticism of their wicked ways, albeit in his mind only.
Dealing with his Socialist brothers had proven in the past to be complex and dangerous for fear
of misunderstanding everybody’s interpretation of the correct way of going ahead, how to
interpret the ideas of Socialism, the constant changes in policies and associations, and the
apparent unpredictability he had experienced not only internationally, but also from his
Chinese comrades.
17
Please read the prose poem Jiang Qing claimed to be written to her by Mao before
his death in September, 1976. What does the poem say about the end of the Maoist
era? Do you believe it was written by Mao Zedong?
"You have been wronged. Today we are separating into two worlds. May each keep his peace.
These few words may be my last message to you. Human life is limited, but revolution knows
no bounds. In the struggle of the past ten years I have tried to reach the peak of revolution, but
I was not successful. But you could reach the top. If you fail, you will plunge into a fathomless
abyss. Your body will shatter. Your bones will break."
It does not seem likely this has actually been written by Mao Zedong himself. A number of
things do not correspond to his official line: he has been on separate sites of a political divide
with Jiang Qing for a while already, so he would have been one of the people criticising her and
it seems unlikely he would retract this idea. Also it seems odd that he starts to criticise his
own actions as being less than successful, and when – through all his time in power – he had
never shown any remorse over his actions that had led to so much suffering. How would he be
in a position to express these ideas of ultimate failure?
Discussion prompts
9
What seems more likely is the notion that this poem was written by Jiang Qing herself or
someone near her, in order to inaugurate a time of criticism of the way Mao himself has been
dealing with politics, and simplifying the start of a wave of criticism with the words of the
Chairman himself! This feels like a ploy to ensure a head start when the fingerpointing starts
after Mao has finally passed away, and to stay in power through all means necessary. More
than anything, Jiang Qing shows her true colours in this (if indeed this poem is a fake), power
hungry and bent on remaining in a position of influence, trying to secure her future when the
times are still reasonably good and opposing forces are still being held at bay by an ailing old
“emperor”.
18
How would you describe the changes that took place in Chinese communism
between 1921 and 1945?
Chinese communism started out as an extension of the Komintern, really guided by
international – and ultimately the Soviet Union’s – decisions rather than by the Chinese
communist leadership. Over time, however, the Chinese communists veered off more and
more from the prescribed international path, and that for two important reasons: for one
thing, the idea of the “proletariat” overthrowing the bourgeoisie simply did not work in China
and the proletariat in question was replaced by the “peasantry”. Furthermore, the Chinese
communist leadership was not inclined to blindly follow a political line that did not suit their
people, but neither did it suit their need for control over their own people. By 1945, this
movement had led to a series of steps that ultimately disconnected the direct leadership of the
CCP from important influence from outside.
19
The notion of "struggle" was a key concept utilized throughout the history of the
Chinese communist party from its founding in 1921 to the death of Mao in 1976.
How does the idea of struggle manifest itself in this history? Are there periods of
more intensified struggle than others?
For an outside viewer, the struggle inside China never ended, although it may have changed
direction and participation level. At the end of the day, the CCP thrived on struggle, and one
could surmise that the old “divide and conquer” strategy was on everybody’s mind to some
degree all along. As for the intensity of the struggle, of course it changed, and also who did
the struggling was a matter of development. In the early days, when the Communists were a
small group, the struggle was mainly directed against the outsiders, all considered to be
bourgeoisie, or the official troops of the KMD, of course. Later on, when numbers of the
Communists had soared to include virtually, through personal choice, introduction to the CCP
or by sheer force of numbers and threat of annihilation if one did not follow the general
direction, these struggles had to be directed to elements within the organisation in order to
keep them in line. Generally, periods with strong leadership were more about the internal
struggle, while weak leadership meant that internal struggle could not be quenched and an
external enemy was needed to regroup and keep people in line against the enemy.
Discussion prompts
20
10
What is the importance of the concept in the history of the Chinese communist
party?
The idea of “concept” is of utmost importance for the functioning of the CCP. Whenever one
of the concepts is released, it is the duty of all members to follow the prescripts of the
concept. If someone does NOT follow along, they will appear to be counterrevolutionary
elements and have to be dealt with. This system leads to a quick resolutions of anyone who is
not willing or able to switch gears quickly and ultimately ensures loyalty in a rather suppressive
way.