By Loren Miller
A striking feature of American politics is the
extent to which political parties are
supplemented by private associations
formed to influence public policy. These
organizations . . . promote their interests by
attempting to influence government rather
than by nominating candidates. . . . Such
groups, while they may call themselves nonpolitical, are engaged in politics; in the main
theirs is a politics of policy.
V.O. Key, 1964
Interest Groups
Since 1964 the role of interest groups has
been drastically altered. Although they
continue to play an important role in all
aspects of the policymaking process,
organized interest groups play a central role
in the electoral process as well.
Interest Groups
Political interest groups pursue two general
objectives:
1. They seek new positive benefits to
promote the group’s interest.
2. They defend current benefits to
protect the group’s interest.
Theories of Interest Group Politics
Do Interest Groups Create Problems?
-- Pluralism argues that interest group activity brings
representation to all
-- Elitism argues that a few groups (primarily the wealthy)
have most of the power
-- Hyperpluralism asserts that too many groups are getting
too much of what they want, resulting in government policy
that is often contradictory
Theories of Interest Group Politics
Pluralism:
-- the belief that democracy can be achieved in a large,
complex society by competition, bargaining and
compromise among organized groups and that
individuals can participate in decision making
through membership in these groups and by
choosing among parties and candidates in elections
-- pluralists are generally optimistic that the public
interest will eventually prevail in the making of public
policy
-- the group becomes the essential bridge between the
individual and the government
-- public policy is the equilibrium reached in the group
struggle
Influence of Group A
Influence of Group B
Pluralism:
Government
Try to Influence
Vote for
Government Officials
Interest Groups
Belong to
Citizens
Theories of Interest Group Politics
Hyperpluralism:
-- the belief there are too many competing groups and that
these group are so strong that government is
weakened
-- too many groups make it impossible for the government to
act
-- when politicians try to appease every group the result is
confusing, contradictory and muddled policy
THE IRON TRIANGLE
Bureaucracy
Department of
Veterans Affairs
Congressional
Committees
House Committee on
Veterans Affairs
Campaign Contributions
Interest Groups
Info about veteran’s needs
American Legion, Veterans
of Foreign War
Legislation affecting veteran’s
benefits
Goal is to protect their self-interest
Theories of Interest Group Politics
Elitism:
-- a political system in which power is concentrated in
the hands of a relatively small group of
individuals or institutions
-- elites contend that our society, like all societies, is
divided along class lines and that an upperclass elite pulls the strings of government
-- public policy does not reflect the “demands” of the
people so much as it does the interests of elites
-- changes in public policy come about as a result of
redefinition by elites of their own values
Do elites tend to be liberal or conservative?
Do elites desire incremental or revolutionary change?
Perception of Interest Groups
Is the government run by a few big interests looking out for
themselves or is it run for the benefit of the people?
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Big Interests
All the people
Don't Know
Why Join an Interest Group?
Americans form associations for various reasons:
-- camaraderie
-- education
-- charitable work
-- economic advancement
Political Involvement?
As leaders of an organization see that their group’s interest is
affected by governmental action, they must make an important
decision regarding whether they would like to play a more
active political role.
If they decide to become politically involved, they take on a
new status.
-- if they decide to lobby Congress for legislation, they
must register as a lobbying organization.
-- if they decide to directly support candidates for office, they
must form a separate political action committee (PAC)
Political Action Committees (PACs)
Tillman Act (1907) – prohibited corporate campaign contributions
Corrupt Practices Campaign Act (1925) – set limits on expenditures
for house and senate campaigns
Hatch Acts (1939 & 1940) – set limits on contributions and
involvement of federal employees
Taft-Hartley Act (1947) – prohibited labor unions from contributing
directly to campaigns
These laws were easily circumvented and ignored.
Political Action Committees (PACs)
The reality of campaign financing entering the 1970s revealed a
picture of significantly increasing expenditures, corporate influence,
and union activity, all sidestepping the intent, if not the letter, of the
law.
The Federal Election Campaign Act (1971) and Amendments (1974):
-- limited individual contributions but permitted the
establishment of political action committees
-- political action committees were for the
“establishment, administration, and solicitation of
contributions to a separate, segregated fund”
Veterans for a Strong America anti-Obama ad
527 Organization
A tax exempt group formed primarily to influence elections through
voter mobilization efforts and issue ads that do not directly endorse
or oppose a candidate.
Unlike Political Action Committees, 527s are not subject to
contribution limits and spending caps.
In 2012, federally focused 527 organizations spent more than $300
million.
527 anti-McCain ad
Top Ten PACs in Contributions to Federal Candidates
2014
1. National Association of Realtors
2. National Beer Wholesalers Ass’n
3. Honeywell International
4. Operating Engineers Union
5. Nat’l Auto Dealers Association
6. Lockheed Martin
7. American Bankers Association
8. Credit Union National Association
9. AT&T
10. Northrup Grumman
Mixed
Mixed
Rep.
Dem.
Rep.
Mixed
Rep.
Mixes
Rep.
Rep.
3.4 million
3.1 million
2.7 million
2.6 million
2.5 million
2.5 million
2.5 million
2.4 million
2.4 million
2.4 million
Top Ten 527 Organizations in Contributions
2014
1. ActBlue
2. College Republican Nat’l Comm.
3. Service Employees Union
4. Emily’s List
5. Citizens United
6. Gay and Lesbian Victory Fund
7. International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers
8. Plumbers/Pipefitters Union
9. RightChange.Com
10. GOPAC
Dem.
Rep.
Dem.
Dem.
Rep.
Dem.
Dem.
Dem.
Rep.
Rep.
14.6 million
14.1 million
10.8 million
9.9 million
9.3 million
7.2 million
6.8 million
5.8 million
5.2 million
4.5 million
Top Spenders on Lobbying Activities, 2013
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
U.S. Chamber of Commerce
National Association of Realtors
Blue Cross/Blue Shield
Northrop Grumman
National Cable & Telecommunications Ass’n
American Hospital Association
Comcast Corp
American Medical Association
Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America
74.4 million
38.6 million
22.6 million
20.6 million
19.9 million
19.7 million
18.8 million
18.2 million
17.9 million
Top Spenders by Industry, 2013
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Health (pharmaceuticals/health products)
Insurance
Oil and Gas
Computers/Internet
Electric Utilities
226.2 million
152.2 million
144.9 million
141.2 million
129.9 millio
Who Gives?
2010
Millions
Ethics Reform??
The Daily Show
Lobbying
The term “lobbying” comes from the place where petitioners
used to collar legislators.
-- you “hung out” waiting for a legislator to appear
Lobbyists are political persuaders who represent organized
groups.
-- many lobbyists are former legislators (is this a problem?)
There are two basic types of lobbyists:
-- a regular, paid employee of a corporation, union, or
association
-- people who are available for hire on a temporary
basis
Lobbying
In addition to trying to influence legislators:
-- they are important sources of information
-- they can help politicians with political strategy for
getting legislation through (or blocking it)
-- they can help formulate campaign strategy and get the
group’s members behind politician’s reelection campaign
-- they are a source of ideas and innovations
Lobbying (Inside DC)
Direct Lobbying: when interest groups meet with officeholders
or bureaucrats asking government to change policy in
line with the groups goals.
-- generally aimed at individuals who share the same goals
-- groups place a high priority on maintaining access to their
lobbying targets
Drafting Legislation: many interest groups draft legislation for
members of Congress to introduce.
Research: interest groups prepare research reports which may
help sway public opinion, help persuade elected officials or
bureaucrats, or help claim expertise on some aspect of
public policy.
Hearings: staff often testify before congressional hearings NRA
Lobbying (Outside DC)
Grassroots Lobbying: directly having interest group members
lobby for their group.
-- send letters, make telephone calls, or participate in a
protest
-- AARP provides pre-written emails and faxes along
with addresses so that members can express the groups
positions on various proposals
Protect Medicare and
Social Security
Stop Proposals to Cut Social
Security and Veterans Benefits
Lobby Group Registrations, 2011
2% 2%
9%
12%
48%
13%
Business
Ag/Energy
Health
Ed & Non-profits
Single Issue
Lawyers
Labor
14%
Total = 23,677
Spending on Lobbying, 2011
4% 1%
2%
8%
15%
54%
16%
Business
Ag/Energy
Health
Ed & Non-Profits
Single Issue
Lawyers
Labor
Total = $3.28 billion
Electioneering
Aiding candidates financially and getting group members out
to support them.
A means for groups to participate in electioneering is provided
by political action committees.
-- no major interest group seeking to exert influence on the
political process can pass up the opportunity to funnel
money honestly and openly into the campaign coffers of its
supporters.
-- nearly half of the candidates running for reelection to the
House of Representatives have received the majority of
their campaign funds from PACs.
Electioneering
In addition to their role in financing campaigns, interest groups
participate in numerous other ways.
-- recruiting interest group members to run for office
-- issuing official group endorsements
-- providing volunteer labor to participate in campaign
work
-- sending delegates to state and national party conventions
to influence the party platforms
Super PACs
Super PACs came into existence in 2010 when federal court
decisions found that limitations on both corporate and
individual contributions is an unconstitutional violation of the
1st Amendment.
-- a PAC that is allowed to raise and spend unlimited
amounts of money from corporations, unions, individuals and
associations
-- the most important difference between a PAC and a
Super PAC is in who can contribute and in how much
they can give
-- candidates can accept up to 5K per election from a PAC;
they cannot accept money from corporations, unions and
associations
-- for Super PACs there is no limit on who contributes or
how much they can contribute but they cannot work in
conjunction with the candidate they are supporting
Romney Super PAC ad
Impact of Citizens United v. FEC (2010)
The Top Super PAC Spenders in 2012
(Millions)
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Republican
Democrat
Types of Organizations
Type of Organization
501
Advantages
Contributions are
tax deductible
Disadvantages
Cannot engage in political
activities or lobbying, only
voter education and mobilization
527
Can spend unlimited amounts on
issue advocacy and voter mobilization
Cannot make contributions to
candidates or coordinate efforts
with candidates or parties
PACs
Can contribute directly to
candidates and parties
Strict limits on
direct contributions
Can spend unlimited amounts on
electioneering, can support or
oppose specific candidates
Cannot make contributions
to candidates or coordinate
efforts with candidates
or parties
Super PACs
Litigation
If interest groups fail in Congress, the next step is to go to
court in hope of getting specific rulings:
-- environmental legislation allows for private citizens to sue
for enforcement
-- civil rights legislation in the 1950s was blocked in
Congress, so groups went to the courts
-- Amicus Curiae briefs
-- Class Action Lawsuits
Creating Public Pressure
Protest Demonstrations
-- Tea Party movement; immigration reform; gay marriage
Political Violence
-- animal rights groups like the Animal Liberation Front;
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA)
Types of Groups
Some groups are organized for a single-purpose while others
lobby on a whole range of issues.
Single-Issue Groups:
-- Women’s Suffrage Association
-- National Pro-life Alliance
-- Pro-choice America
Multi-Purpose Groups:
-- the League of Women Voters
-- American Association of University Women
-- National Organization of Women (NOW)
-- Business and Professional Women’s Association
Types of Groups
Business Groups
-- the most numerous and most potent of America’s interest
groups
-- concerned with labor laws, tax laws, interest rates,
environmental regulation, trade policies, and government
contracts
-- oil companies favor off-shore drilling but worry about
environmental regulations
-- banks are concerned with financial regulatory reform
-- Chamber of Commerce
-- National Federation of Independent Business (NFIB)
Professional Associations
-- doctors, lawyers, realtors and other professionals form
associations to advance their interests
-- AMA is concerned with limiting the amount of money that a
judge can award in medical malpractice law suits; ABA is
opposed to this
Types of Groups
Labor Unions
-- not as important a political force as they used to be
-- in 1970, more than 25% of the labor force belonged to a
union; today it is less than 12%
-- right to work laws inhibit union organizing
-- some employers aggressively resist union organizing
(Wal-Mart)
-- largest union is the AFL-CIO
-- other large unions are American Federation of Teachers
(AFT), the Teamsters Union, the United Mine Workers Union,
and the United Auto Workers Union (UAW)
-- favor government policies that make it easier for unions
to organize; increase in the minimum wage; better working
conditions
Types of Groups
Agricultural Groups
-- influential on farm issues at the national level and in state
legislatures in farming states
-- largest unions are the American Farm Bureau and the
National Farmers Union
-- there are also associations representing specific farm
interests (e.g., National Milk Producers Union)
-- desire government loan guarantees, crop subsidies, and
the promotion of farm exports)
Racial and Ethnic Minority Rights Groups
-- most ethnic minority groups have formed their own interest
group
-- NAACP; LULAC; AIM (American Indian Movement)
-- desire equality before the law; representation in electiver
and appointive office; freedom from discrimination;
economic advancement
Types of Groups
Citizen Groups
-- organizations created to support governmental policies that
they believe will benefit the public at-large
-- Common Cause; Sierra Club; ACLU
Advocacy Groups
-- organizations created to seek benefits of behalf of groups
who are in some way incapacitated or otherwise unable to
represent their own interests
-- Alzheimer’s Association; Children’s Defense Fund;
American Cancer Society
Cause Groups
-- organizations whose members care intensely about a single
issue or small group of related issues
-- AARP; NOW; National Right to Life Committee; ProChoice America
Numbers and Types of Groups
3000
2500
Corporate
2000
1500
Public
Interest/Ideological
Trade
1000
Labor
500
Other
0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2012
Groups Rate Officeholders
Candidates for office often use interest group’s ratings to show
voters how “good” they are:
-- Americans for Democratic Action (Liberal)
-- use a series of votes on both domestic and
foreign policy issues
-- American Conservative Union (Conservative)
-- use a sophisticated system to show how
frequently members vote “for safeguarding the
God-given rights of the individual”
As expected, a high score from one group is likely to be
matched by a low score from the other group. This pushes
officeholders to hold ideologically extreme positions.
Interest Group Ratings
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100
95
95
89
ADA
ACU
Conservation
Voters
Taxpayers Union
4
Boxer
3
8
0
DeMint
Groups Rate Officeholders
Other groups, single-issue and multi-purpose also rate
officeholders:
-- League of Conservation Voters
-- environmental concerns
-- AFL-CIO
-- concerns of labor unions
-- Chamber of Commerce
-- concerns of business
-- Christian Coalition
-- conservative religious values