~ Elliot Aronson ~
Helmreich, R., Aronson, E. J LeFan, J. (1970). To err is
humanizing sometimes: Effects of self-esteem, competence,
and a pratfall on interpersonal attraction. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 16(2), 259-264.
Leon Festinger
THEORY OF COGNITIVE DISSONANCE (1957)
BASIC HYPOTHESIS
If a person held two cognitions that were psychologically inconsistent, he or
she would experience dissonance and would attempt to reduce dissonance
much as one would attempt to reduce hunger, thirst, or any drive.
The existence of dissonance, being psychologically uncomfortable, will
motivate the person to try and reduce the dissonance and achieve consonance.
Earthquake Research by Singh in India
Epicenter
In unaffected areas far away from the epicenter, people
exhibited high levels of anxiety and spread rumors of
impending further disaster. Why?
Insufficient
justification
Why was the theory of cognitive dissonance
(“insufficient justification) such a big deal?
Helped to shift psychology from the focus on behaviorism (e.g.,
reinforcement paradigms) by:
•Promoting the key role of cognition and motivation
•Questioning the basic assumptions that greater rewards lead to an
increase in behavior and that greater punishments are more
effective
•Showing that dissonance can produce long-term change
•Demonstrating dissonance can affect important (major) issues
•Use of a “new” experimental methodology (“experimental reality’)
– extravagant scenarios/events (scripts, acting involved)
Power of Large Reward/Severe Punishment
versus Small Reward/Mild Punishment
Also, offered different prediction regarding the catharsis
hypothesis (psychoanalytic theory)
Catharsis Hypothesis
Dissonance Theory
Aggress against
another (hit, yell, call
names); release violent
tendencies; feel better;
less likely to be
aggressive in the future
Aggress against
another; justify one’s
aggression by
disparaging the victim;
feel more hostile to
victim; may aggress
against victim again
Inconsistency
Attitude: “I’m not going to smoke cigarettes anymore”
Behavior: Smoke cigarettes
Some Options
1) Change behavior (e.g., Throw pack away)
2) Change cognitions (e.g., “Smoking isn’t all that bad”;
“I don’t really smoke that much”)
3) Add supporting cognitions (e.g., “ Smoking relaxes
me” “it helps me think better”
More Cognitive Dissonance Occurs When:
•
Choice is involved
•
Individuals are responsible for any consequences of their
behavior (and if the consequences could be anticipated)
•
Belief that negative consequences are likely to occur
•
One’s self-concept is involved. Regarding the self-concept,
people strive to:
• Preserve a consistent, stable, predictable sense of self
• Preserve a competent sense of self
• Preserve a morally good sense of self
Administered an exam with
prizes for winners. Almost
impossible to win without
Cheating is not good but not
cheating. Made it
so bad either
fairly easy to cheat.
Decide
to cheat
Do NOT
cheat
Cheating is
no big deal
Mills, J. (1958)
Cheaters
ought to be
expelled
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
FESTINGER & CARLSMITH (1$ - $20 Study)
Asked to tell participant
that the task was
interesting (to lie)
Perform
boring task
$1
$20
$20
|
Boring
Rate
task
$1
|
Interesting
• Which group rated the task as more interesting after lying,
those paid $1 or $20 and why?
Key is lack of sufficient external justification for one’s behavior
Are aversive consequence necessary for dissonance to
be produced? Hypocrisy and Condom Use Study
Hypocrisy: Compose
arguments for using
condoms on video to
be shown to HS
students, Make a list
of times they found it
difficult to use them
~ Shower Study ~
Commitment Condition:
Mindful Condition:
Asked students if they
were willing to sign a flyer
(to be displayer on posters)
encouraging people to save
water in a gym
Asked students to complete
a water conservation
survey designed to make
them award of their proconservation attitudes, and
that they sometimes were
wasteful while showering.
“Take shorter showers. Turn off
water while soaping up. If I can do
it, so can you.”
Results: Those who signed the petition and were made aware of
their past, wasteful showering behavior, took much shorter showers
(average of 3.5 minutes!
“TOY” STUDY
Children rate desirability of toys
Attractiveness
Told not to play with the most desirable toy
Attractiveness
High
High
MILD THREAT
SEVERE THREAT
Children did not play with the “forbidden” toy
Low
Low
Children rate the desirability of the toys a 2nd time after not playing with
the desired
Which group viewed the desirable toy most attractive? Why?
From Freedman (1965). Results several weeks after receiving a mild versus severe
threat to not play with the desirable (forbidden) toy
Effort Justification
Role of Severe Initiation
Aronson & Mills (1959)
ATTITUDES REGARDING MARIJUANA LEGALIZATION
Original belief = “No”
Asked to give speech
opposite of their attitude (for
legalization)
Speech watched
by research team
Told speech taped and
would be shown to high
school students
More positive
views of
legalization
Attitudes regarding marijuana legalization