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Introduction to American Literature
History of Plymouth Plantation
Critical Evaluation:
William Bradford’s History of Plymouth Plantation is generally felt by both
U.S. and English historians to be one of the most important volumes of
the Colonial period in America. The work survived apparently only by the
rarest of chances. It was begun in 1630 by Bradford, who was one of the
hardy band who came to Plymouth on the Mayflower and who served as
governor of that colony for thirty-three years; he completed chapter 10
that same year. Most of the remainder he wrote in pieces through 1646;
later, he entered a few items up to 1650.
The manuscript remained in the family, passing first to the governor’s
oldest son, Major William Bradford; subsequently to his son, Major John
Bradford; and then to his son, Samuel. Meanwhile, it was being borrowed
and mined for various other histories of Colonial America. While borrowed
by Increase Mather, it narrowly escaped being burned when Mather’s
house was destroyed in 1676. After numerous uses by other historians, it
eventually came to rest in the bishop of London’s library in Fulham
Palace, probably taken there by a soldier during the Revolutionary War.
There it was found and the first complete edition of the manuscript was
published in 1856.
Long before it was published, much of its contents had passed into U.S.
history and myth. Factually, Bradford’s account of the trials and
misadventures of the settlers at Plymouth is the fullest and best available.
It begins with the unfolding of the “occasion and inducements thereunto”
of the Plymouth Plantation, the author professing that he will write “in a
plain style, with singular regard unto the simple truth in all things,” as far
as his “slender judgment” will allow. Chapter 1 begins with the
background of the trip—the years 1550 to 1607 and the origin of the
Pilgrim Church in England.
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Bradford gives a telling account of how the Pilgrims were forced to flee to
Holland in 1608, the immense suffering they underwent while there, their
manner of living in that alien land, and their eventual determination to
sail to the New World. Eventually, all preparations were made for this
mighty undertaking. At first, they were to sail in two ships, but one,
because of the fear and duplicity of the captain, was finally abandoned,
and the trip made in only one, theMayflower, of which Christopher Jones
was master.
The Pilgrims arrived at Cape Cod on November 11, 1620. Their
consternation upon arriving on the foreign shore is graphically described
by Bradford. He stood “half amazed” at the people’s condition upon
arrival. They could see nothing but “a hideous and desolate wilderness,
full of wild beasts and wild men,” with “savage barbarians,” who were
“readier to fill” the sides of the Pilgrims “full of arrows than otherwise.”
The first section, or book, ends with the account of the Pilgrims’ choice of
Plymouth as their mainland home, after some days of searching. This
particular spot was chosen for two reasons: The harbor was deep enough
to accommodate shipping, and the settlers had found, back from the
coast, “divers cornfields and little running brooks,” a place “just as they
supposed fit for situation.” On December 25, they began to “erect the first
house for common use” at Plymouth.
The account of the landing at the spot that has later become associated
with Plymouth Rock is interesting for its nondramatic quality. Bradford’s is
the only contemporary account of that landing, and it is notable in its
differing from the account that popular lore has come to associate with
the landing. There was no rock; this was the later invention of Elder John
Faunce who, in 1741, at the age of ninety-five, identified a certain rock as
the “place where the forefathers landed.” Contrary to the widely held
mental image of the Pilgrims’ arrival, the landing was made from a
shallop, not the Mayflower; there were no women present; and no
Indians appeared with hands outstretched in greeting.
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Bradford’s second book is handled, for the sake of brevity, “by way of
annals, noting only the heads of principal things, and passages as they
fell in order of time, and may seem to be profitable to know or to make
use of.” It begins with the famous Mayflower Compact, which was
“Occasioned partly by the discontented and mutinous speeches that some
of the strangers,” that is, non-Separatists, voiced about their future:
“That when they came ashore they would use their own liberty, for none
had power to command them, the patent they had being for Virginia and
not for New England.”
Next comes the account of the starving days, when more than half of the
original passengers on the Mayflower died, “especially during January and
February, two or three a day,” of hunger or of scurvy and other diseases.
At times, there were only “six or seven sound persons” to tend the
numerous sick and dying.
The account of the first Thanksgiving is given with Bradford’s simplicity
and restraint, with hints of the joy showing through. All things were had
“in good plenty,” and all colonists were “recovered in health and
strength.” Fish and fowl were plentiful. Besides numerous fowl, “there
was great store of wild turkeys, of which they took many, besides
venison, etc.” All the great provisions “made many afterwards write so
largely of their plenty here to their friends in England, which were not
faind but true reports.” Thus Bradford gives the account of the origins of
one of the United States’ great institutions.
After the first rich harvest, however, lean days returned. Bradford records
these days faithfully and fully. He records also the numerous other
occurrences: the arrival of new ships with additions to the colony,
accounts of numerous encounters with the Indians, associations with the
surrounding colonies. One interesting section is that concerning the
organization of the Undertakers, the people combining their talent and
energy in a herculean effort to lift the debt imposed by the London
Adventurers, the people in England who had financed the flight of the
Pilgrims in the first place and who continued to exact payment from the
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Pilgrims for a debt that never grew smaller, no matter how much New
England material was returned in payment.
There is an interesting and derogatory account of the notorious
settlement at Merrymount, founded by Captain Wollaston and two or
three other persons who brought numerous servants with them from
England. After Wollaston departed for Virginia, Merrymount was taken
over by a Mr. Morton, a man “having more craft than honesty,” who led
the Merrymounters in “a dissolute life, pouring out themselves into all
profaneness. And Morton became Lord of Misrule,” and continued as such
until John Endicott came from England, caused the maypole to be cut
down, “rebuked them for their profaneness and admonished them to look
there should be better walking.” This event has been beautifully written
up by Nathaniel Hawthorne in “The Maypole of Merrymount.”
Another interesting account is that of Roger Williams, whom Bradford
calls “a man godly and zealous, having many precious parts but very
unsettled in judgment.” Bradford tells how Williams, viewed by many
twentieth century commentators as perhaps the first American democrat,
fell “into some strange opinions, and from opinion to practice,” which
eventually caused his exile and his founding of Providence, Rhode Island,
a haven for persons interested in freedom of conscience.
The essentially gentle and Christian character of the chronicler is revealed
in his final comment on Williams. “He is to be pitied and prayed for; and
so I shall leave the matter and desire the Lord to show him his errors and
reduce him into the way of truth.” From beginning to end, such is the
tone of this great account of the forefathers of the United States, without
which U.S. histories would be incomplete.
Themes
Religion
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The men and women who objected to the inclusion of men's
inventions into the church were quickly known as the Puritans.
The Puritans took issue with many ideals and philosophies held
by the church that clearly went against the Bible and
Christianity. When the people splintered from the Church of
England and the Roman Catholic Church in order to return to
the true ways of the faith, the religious community vehemently
objected. The Puritans were threatened and eventually
persecuted, despite the tolerance of Queen Elizabeth I.
After James I ascended to the throne, the persecution of the
Puritans and their congregational church worsened. People
were stripped of their worldly goods, arrested, tortured,
imprisoned or killed. The Puritans finally decided that they
would flee to Holland where it was known that the church
could continue without the restrictions imposed by the crown.
However, James had all feasible ports of entry blocked so that
the Puritans had to pay a high price to be smuggled out of the
country.
The Puritans practiced their religion in Amsterdam, and then
Leyden, with little intervention. Although there were opponents
to the church, the Puritans made a good name for themselves.
The Puritans decided to leave Holland for fear that the
Spaniards would take over and they would once again be
persecuted. Traveling to America would ensure that the
Puritans could have true religious freedom and worship as God
would have it.
Hardship
The Separatists suffered great hardship long before they came
to America.
Chapter I begins with the exodus of men who had become
known as professors and wanted to be able to get away from
"the persecutions of the heathen and their emperors."
Bradford quotes Socrates regarding the treatment of those
who would not obey the principles of the established church,
saying that the treatment of one Christian to another was
equal to, if not worse than, the treatment thrust upon
Christians in the early days.
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After the Separatists came to America, they were faced with
more hardship in regards to weather, provisions, infighting,
and illness.
Bradford goes on to call the period following the compact as
"The Starting Time", during which half of the company died
within a period of two in three months, with the most expiring
in the dead of winter. Many had been infected with scurvy and
various other diseases, which the long journey and inadequate
accommodations brought upon them. There were six or seven
men who took it upon themselves to try to fulfill every need of
the colony from fetching wood to washing clothes and feeding
the weak and infirm. Two of the men included in this group
were Elder William Brewster and Captain Myles Standish.
Even as the colony began to flourish, there would continue to
be hardship due to weather and the corruption of those
employed to help the Pilgrims in their relations with England,
Leyden, and neighboring peoples.
Corruption
There was an astounding amount of corruption outlined in Of
Plymouth Plantation. It began with the corruption in the church
and continued on with the high prices charged by those who
would help the Separatists escape England.
One of the most corrupt people by far was Thomas Weston.
Weston took money from the Pilgrims and cheated them at
virtually every turn. Weston was completely unscrupulous and
dishonest in his dealings with everyone. Even after the Pilgrims
realized the extent of Weston's corrupt nature, they were often
forced to uphold the agreement which tied them to Weston.
There were also events surrounding Robert Cushman that cast
his morality in a bad light.
Isaac Allerton, Bradford's assistant governor, also became
quite corrupt and often took goods and profits for his own
gain, cheating the Pilgrims as well as their creditors. This may
have been the most shocking since Allerton had been so
devoted to Bradford and the colony. Allerton was also married
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to William Brewster's daughter, which seemed to have no
impact upon the man's wrongdoing.
Style
Perspective
William Bradford (1590 - 1657) was a leader of the Separatist
movement, one of the founders of the Mayflower Compact,
and author of Of Plymouth Plantation. Bradford's intimate
involvement in the arrangement of the voyage to America and
the design and operation of the Plymouth Plantation give him
the ultimate perspective to record the activities that took place
during 1620-1647.
Bradford was also elected governor of the colony at least thirty
times, serving a total of thirty-three years after the death of
his predecessor, John Carver.
Bradford was the son of William Bradford and Alice Hanson.
The elder Bradford died when William was a year old. The boy
was sent to live with uncles and a grandfather who taught him
to be a farmer. At age twelve, Bradford became a vigilant
student of the Bible, a practice that would carry him
throughout his life. Bradford joined the Puritans, where he met
Elder William Brewster.
Bradford was one of the first to sail aboard the Mayflower to
explore Cape Cod. Later, Bradford and his wife, Dorothy,
would travel to America. Dorothy died en route. Three years
later, Bradford married Alice Southworth.
Bradford never again left New England. The governor was
awarded the Warwick Patent but instead of proclaiming himself
a lord, Bradford turned the patent over to the Freemen, made
up of many "Old Comers."
One of Bradford's biggest contributions to history is his journal
of the life and times of the new settlement, Of Plymouth
Plantation: 1620-1647. The book has often been touted as one
of the most influential and historically accurate tomes of
American history.
Tone
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The tone used in Of Plymouth Plantation 1620-1647 by William
Bradford is almost completely objective. Bradford chose to
write the history of the Plantation in third person omniscient
rather than in first person. While the use of this point of view
may take away the majority of Bradford's opinions on the
events that led up to the settlement and how the Plantation
was developed and maintained, it allows the author to relay
the events as pure fact, untainted by his own perspective.
The book was edited by Samuel Eliot Morison, who also added
copious footnotes to the text. Morison also remained largely
objective and added a great deal of pertinent information and
resources for the reader.
In the few parts where Bradford did allow his own views and
opinions to come through, the reader is able to see Bradford's
complete devotion to the Plantation and to God. It is made
clear that Bradford was truly a pious man who had the best
interest of the Plantation in mind. The group of original
Adventurers, including Bradford, John Carver, and William
Brewster, worked hard to realize a vision which might have
been abandoned by those who were less devout.
Structure
Of Plymouth Plantation 1620-1647 by William Bradford is a
work of non-fiction. The book, often recognized as one of the
most accurate and valuable historical references in American
history, details the arrival and settlement of the Puritans at
Plymouth Plantation in 1620 and the subsequent years and
hardships.
The book is comprised of 448 pages, broken down into two
books containing a total of twenty-six chapters and
appendices. Three hundred forty-seven pages are devoted to
the text; the remaining 101 pages are devoted to various
appendices.
Book 1 contains ten chapters, detailing events from 16071620. Book 2 contains sixteen chapters, detailing events from
1620-1647. The shortest chapter is two pages in length; the
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longest chapter is twenty-four pages in length. The average
length of the chapters is thirteen pages.
The Appendices include: Bradford's "Late Observation Worthy
to be Noted;" Correspondence with the Virginia Company;
Correspondence between Leyden and London Agents; Rev.
John Robinson's Farewell Letters to John Carver; Letters from
London and Leyden; Correspondence with the Dutch at
Manhattan; Letters of Shirley and Hatherly; Governor
Winthrop's Letters on the Pequot War; Terminating the
Undertaker's Agreement with Their London Partners; Opinions
of Three Ministers on Unnatural Vice; Conclusion of Business
with London Partners; Official Documents; and Passengers in
the Mayflower.
Also included are an Index and Listing of Familiar Quotations.
Bradford also included four maps drawn by Erwin Raisz,
including Part of Cape Cod; Plymouth Bay; New England; and
the Colony of New Plymouth.
Quotes
"The one side laboured to have the right worship of God and
discipline of Christ established in the church, according to the
simplicity of the gospel, without the mixture of man's
inventions; and to have and to be ruled by the laws of God's
Word, dispensed in those offices, and by those officers of
Pastors, Teachers and Elders, etc. according to the Scriptures."
Chap. 1, p. 6
"Being now come into the Low Countries, they saw many
goodly and fortified cities, strongly walled and guarded with
troops of armed men." Chap. 3, p. 16
"The place they had thoughts on was some of those vast and
unpeopled countries of America, which are full of savage and
brutish men, which range up and down, little otherwise than
wild beasts of same." Chap 4, p. 25
"And first after their humble prayers unto God for His direction
and assistance, and a general conference held hereabout, they
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consulted what particular place to pitch upon and prepare for."
Chap. 5, p. 28
"But at length the conclusion was to live as a distinct body by
themselves under the General Government of Virginia; and by
their friends to sue His Majesty that he would be pleased to
grant them freedom of religion." Chap. 5, p. 29
"About this time, whilst they were perplexed with the
proceedings of Virginia Company and the ill news from thence
about Mr. Blackwell and his company, making inquiry about
hiring and buying of shipping for their voyage, some Dutchmen
made them fair offers about going with them." Chap. 6, p. 37
"These troubles being blown over, and now all being compact
together in one ship, they put to sea again with a prosperous
wind, which continued divers days together, which was some
encouragement unto them; yet, according to the usual
manner, many were afflicted with seasickness." Chap. 8, p. 58
"But that which was most sad and lamentable was, that in two
or three months time half of their company died, especially in
January and February, being the depths of winter, and wanting
houses and other comforts; being infected with the scurvy and
other diseases, which this long voyage and their
inaccommodate condition had brought upon them." Chap. 11,
p. 77
"Now in a manner their provisions were wholly spent, and they
looked hard for supply but none came." Chap. 13, p. 99
"They had lost themselves at sea, either by the insufficiency of
the master, or his illness, for he was sick and lame of the
scurvy, so that he could but lie in the cabin door and give
direction, and it should seem was badly assisted either with
mate or mariners." Chap. 18, p. 189
"This year the Dutch sent again unto them from their
Plantation both kind letters, and also diverse commodities, as
sugar, linen cloth, holland, finer and coarser stuffs, etc." Chap.
19, p. 202
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"They looked earnestly for a timely supply this spring, by the
fishing ship which they expected, and had been at charged to
keep a stage for her; but none came nor any supply heard of
for them." Chap. 21, p. 226
"When they came up the river, the Dutch demanded what they
intended and whether they would go." Chap. 24, p. 259
"I say it may justly be marveled at and cause us to fear and
tremble at the consideration of our corrupt natures, which are
so hardly bridled, subdued and mortified; nay, cannot by any
other means, but the powerful work and grace of God's Spirit."
Chap. 32, p. 316
"Thus this mischief was presented and the fear of war hereby
diverted." Chap. 34, p. 337
“The Prologue”
“The Prologue” is Bradstreet's apology for her book of poems. At first, it
seems like an apology in the common sense of the word, for she refers to
her “foolish, broken, blemished Muse” and begs elaborate pardon that her
poems are not so fine as those of other poets, although she insists that
she is doing the best she can. Upon closer inspection, “The Prologue”
turns out to be an apology in the literary sense of a defense of her art.
One of her favorite poets, Sir Philip Sidney, also referred to his own work
condescendingly. This attitude has a special meaning when expressed by
a woman writing in a New World Puritan outpost before 1650.
“The Prologue” is written in eight six-line iambic pentameter stanzas,
using the rhyme schemeababcc. Bradstreet begins by advising her reader
that she has no ambition to write an elaborate, important poem such as
an epic. She lauds the sixteenth century French poet du Bartas but notes
that her work will be much simpler. She hopes it will not be judged too
harshly, for her ability is severely limited.
In the second half of the poem, she modifies her defense. She
acknowledges that men expect women to practice feminine arts such as
needlework and refuse to recognize any value in a woman's poem. She
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intimates that the Greeks, in making the Muses feminine, had more
regard for feminine creativity but concedes that this argument will not
convince the men. She then concludes with two stanzas confessing the
superiority of male poets but asking “some small acknowledgment” of
women's efforts. After all, Bradstreet's “lowly lines” will simply make
men's poetry look better by comparison.
Even read literally, as it often has been read, this poem displays clever
strategy. How could any fair-minded person expect competent poetry
from uneducated people who had no opportunities to travel or associate
familiarly with other poets and who spent most of their lives bearing
children and serving their needs and those of their husbands? Even when
blessed with talent and sufficient leisure to compose, such writers offered
no threat to the male poets, many of whom could take education,
frequent association with their peers, and leisure for granted. By
displaying humility at the beginning of her book, Bradstreet hoped to
forestall, or at least minimize, the inevitable criticism of a woman poet.
It is difficult, however, to escape the conviction that irony lurks
everywhere in this poem. In the first place, it is scarcely possible that
Bradstreet considered her brain “weak or wounded” as she styles it in the
poem; talented people are usually aware of their talent. If she cannot
write “of wars, of captains, and of kings,” she has the resources to write
about her husband, children and grandchildren, domestic life (including
the cruel experience of watching her home burn), and the spiritual
struggle common to all Puritans.
The last four stanzas of the poem betray signs of an ironic counterattack
upon her critics. Her fifth stanza almost undermines the effect toward
which she is working by nearly boiling over with indignation at men's
refusal to accept the woman poet. Such criticism is “carping”; it maintains
that any feminine poetic success must be the result of either plagiarism or
“chance.” Why did men call poetry “Calliope's own child”? The answer that
she attributes to the men—that the Greeks did nothing but “play the fools
and lie”—mimics a weak-kneed response.
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In her final stanza, she catches the true satiric tone. Addressing “ye
highflown quills that soar the skies,” she asks not for the “bays,” or
traditional laurel wreath honoring poetic achievement, but for a “thyme or
parsley wreath” befitting the woman who is expected to reign chiefly in
the kitchen. She might as well have asked for a bay leaf, the common
kitchen spice, but such a request might have reminded her audience that
the laurel leaf and the bay leaf are closely affiliated. In effect, Bradstreet
has asked for a recognition less humble than it seems. Her final point—
that her “unrefined ore” will make the male poets’ “gold” appear to shine
more brightly—taunts the egotism of the males, who are probably flying
too high to notice.
“To My Dear and Loving Husband”
In her poem "To My Dear and Loving Husband," Anne
Bradstreet expresses her profound love and undying affection
for her husband. Bradstreet makes a point to enlighten her
husband of her devotion and longing as opposed to duty,
which leaves the question whether or not she reflected the
Puritan lifestyle of her time. She conveys this message through
figurative language and declarative tone, using imagery,
repetition, and paradoxes.
Anne Bradstreet's poem, To My Dear and Loving Husband,
shows her profound love and undying affection for her
husband. For a Puritan woman who is supposed to be
reserved, Bradstreet makes it her obligation to enlighten her
husband of her devotion. She conveys this message through
her figurative language and declarative tone by using imagery,
repetition, and paradoxes.
Over and over again she expresses her adoration for him with
imagery. "I prize thy love more than whole mines of gold, Or
all the riches that the east doth hold. My love is such that
rivers can not quench,..." (5-7). Bradstreet is declaring there
is nothing as powerful as the love she shares with her husband
which is untouchable and eternal. These three lines may also
be viewed as a hyperbole. Love can completely change a
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person, but as a Puritan, Bradstreet has no need for mines of
gold or eastern riches. "Thy love is such I can no way
repay,..." is another example of imagery (9). Symbolizing how
great her love is for her husband, she is expresses there is no
way to purchase or pay for true love.
Repetition is another literary element that Bradstreet utilized
in the first three lines of the poem. "If ever two were one, then
surely we. If ever man were loved by wife, then thee; If ever
wife was happy in a man,..." (1-3). Bradstreet gives their
relationship as an example to others and tells the reader that if
ever a couple was the most devoted to each other, it would be
her and her husband. By using anaphora, she attempts to
prove that the depths of her feelings are beyond compare to
anyone else's.
Spiritually, Bradstreet and her husband complete each other's
lives so that in marriage they are one. Physically, no two
people can be united as one. We see the togetherness Anne
and her husband share as she says, "If ever two were one,
then surely we," (1). This is an example of a paradox. "That
when we live no more, we may live ever." in my opinion, is the
strongest statement in the poem. She insists through this
paradox that their love is eternal and that after they die they
shall continue loving one another. However, it is impossible to
be dead yet still living.
In conclusion, it is left to the opinion whether Anne Bradstreet
reflects the Puritan lifestyle or not because this poem focuses
on a longing for her husband, rather than a duty towards him.
She expresses this through imagery, repetition, paradoxes,
and many other poetic devices. The reader simply can not read
through the poem without being confronted with Bradstreet's
genuine love and sentiment for her husband.
Poor Richard's Almanack
Essentially Poor Richard's Almanack embodies all the themes of
the Autobiography in a witty and accessible format. Franklin's literary
influence on Poor Richard's Almanack comes in a variety of forms:
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Proverbs, epigrams, rhymes, and aphorisms abound in each edition,
usually interspersed among the calendars, weather forecasts, and
astronomical charts. Each edition opens with a letter from the almanac's
alleged author, one Richard Saunders (another Franklin pseudonym). He
was “excessive poor” but fascinated with the heavens. Influenced by his
wife, who could not bear “to sit spinning in her Shift of Tow,” he was
compelled to publish his observations. Thus, Franklin presents to his
readership “middling people” who had to work long and hard to save and
prosper—one of their own, a man of humble means in search of moral
perfection and its resultant prosperity.
Few of Franklin's sayings in Poor Richard's Almanack were original. He
borrowed many of them from larger poetic works written within the
preceding five or ten years; the poetic satirists Alexander Pope, John
Dryden, and Jonathan Swift are heavily borrowed from but revised by
Franklin to fit the needs and tastes of his readership. Many of these
sayings have become oft-repeated foundations of American cultural
heritage: “A true friend is the best possession”; “Don’t misinform your
Doctor nor your Lawyer”; “Don’t throw stones at your neighbors, if your
own windows are glass”; “Fish and visitors stink in 3 days”; “Haste makes
waste”; “Eat to live, and not live to eat.” Scholars point to the role that
experience plays in the sayings found inPoor Richard's Almanack: It is not
scholarly pursuits but wise, practical living that paves the road to virtue.
Although there were allusions to Deism (“Serving God is doing Good to
Man, but praying is Thought an easier Service, and therefore more
generally chosen”) and the theories of Locke, Newton, and the essayist
Francis Bacon, they were versed in language that indicated that such
ideas could be acquired through experience—which includes, in the
Lockean sense, observation. Thus, those colonists (and there were a
great many) who did not have access to books could gain much
contemporary philosophical and literary thought through Mr.
Saunders'sAlmanack. Franklin's sayings, while not original in themselves,
were revised to adapt to the emerging working class of the American
colonies. Such an infusion of philosophical ideas dealing with equality
helped give the American colonies the intellectual impetus for the
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Revolution that occurred less than twenty years after the last edition
of Poor Richard's Almanack was published.
One final note as to the popularity of Poor Richard's Almanack concerns
the Revolutionary War naval hero John Paul Jones, who waited for months
in France for a refitted man-of-war promised to him by the French
monarchy to aid the independence effort. Finally, Jones recalled a maxim
from Poor Richard's Almanack. “If you’d have it done, go; if not, send,”
and he marched to Versailles and demanded the vessel. The resulting
warship was christenedBonhomme Richard in appreciation of the influence
of Poor Richard's Almanack on the indomitable Jones.
Poor Richard's Almanack Study Guide
Plot Summary
This small book is a collection of sayings, most of which are the original
thoughts of Benjamin Franklin. The sayings were originally published in a
series of yearly booklets known as "Poor Richard's Almanack" between
the years of 1732-1758. Franklin's sayings are often self-explanatory and
are just as true today as they were when they were written. The difficulty
in understanding Franklin's sayings comes mainly from his use of
colloquial language and spelling.
While this collection of sayings may at first appear to be unrelated, closer
study will uncover a series of themes which Franklin returns to often in
his writings. These themes include ideas of what qualities one should look
for in a friend, things to do to remain healthy, the importance of saving
and not being wasteful, the glory of hard work, and the problems one's
own self can cause. In his sayings, Franklin also shares his views of
lawyers and preachers, sometimes even talks about political or
governmental issues. Franklin also touches on the characteristics of wives
and the challenges of married life.
One important facet to keep in mind while reading Franklin's quotes is the
many literary elements he uses in his writing. One of his favorite
elements is the use of personification, or the act of giving an inanimate
object the qualities of a living being. For instance, in one of his sayings
Franklin writes of the qualities of happiness and avarice noting that the
two have never "seen" each other, an act impossible for these qualities
which have no eyes. Franklin also offers his readers word puzzles and
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quotes that require thought to determine the true meaning. Remember
that in this time period, people got most of their entertainment from
media such as Franklin's almanac; therefore, they enjoyed his witty and
thought provoking writing style.
Another detail that should be kept in mind when reading and interpreting
these sayings is that Franklin wrote his almanac under the pen name of
Richard Saunders. Because of the cloaked nature of his writing, Franklin
felt more free to express his true feelings about certain subjects, such as
government and the nature of wives. Franklin also used his almanac as a
way to spotlight his sense of humor and intelligence.
Section One Through Page 20 Summary and Analysis
This small book is a collection of sayings, most of which are the original
thoughts of Benjamin Franklin. The sayings were originally published in a
series of yearly booklets known as "Poor Richard's Almanack" between
the years of 1732-1758. Franklin's sayings are often self-explanatory and
just as true today as they were when they were written. The difficulty in
understanding Franklin's sayings come through his use of colloquial
language and spelling.
Franklin begins his list of sayings with a suggestion to view each new year
as a clean slate, leaving bad habits behind with the old year. In the final
saying on page 6 Franklin presents his first quote about lawyers. The
impression is given that Franklin does not care much for lawyers as he
indicates a lawyer will pick a man to the bone, somewhat like a pair of
cats will do to a fish. On the following page, Franklin presents a longer
saying dealing with the need to attend to one's own business. He rebukes
those people who meddle in areas they do not belong, especially those
who do so to the extent they neglect their own duties. This neglect can
lead to circumstances that injure others or cause them to be
inconvenienced.
On page 7, Franklin introduces his first quotes that deal with keeping the
body well. Franklin advises against eating late at night. He also suggests
that milk and fish do not make a good mealtime combination. Also on
page 7, Franklin presents a rhymed poem. This short poem features an
enclosed rhyme and compares the personalities of death, a lawyer and a
preacher. Although these three seem to be an unusual team, Franklin
plays on their similarities.
In the final saying on page 8, Franklin gives advice on how to morally rise
above others. If one seeks to injure others, he is morally below even
those who are his enemies. Those who seek revenge are even with their
enemies. The only way to morally rise above it all is to forgive those who
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do harm. On page 10 there is a string of quotes that refer to Franklin's
opinion of money and the need to not waste money. Franklin feels the
only good reason to have money is to use it. However, he also
encourages saving money as well as the intelligent use of money. Along
with his admonishment not to waste money, Franklin also advises his
readers not to waste time.
Along the lines of wealth, Franklin writes on page 12 the qualities he feels
really constitute a wealthy person. These wealthy people, Franklin writes,
are those who are thankful for what they have. On page 13, Franklin
shares a bit of insight on preachers. He fittingly compares these people to
candles which are destroyed in their attempt to bring light, representative
of God's word, to others.
Being able to conquer and control one's own self is another quality
Franklin thinks highly of. On page 14 Franklin indicates that those who
gain control over themselves are more deserving of reward and respect
than those who rule countries. On page 16 Franklin injects humor into his
writing, advising his readers to "Make haste slowly." This statement is an
oxymoron intended to encourage people to even make rushed decisions
with a certain amount of care.
On page 18 Franklin shares his view of a long life. Franklin believes a life
well lived regardless of its endurance is of more value than a long life in
general. Franklin also uses his sayings to encourage those who feel they
are up against a big job. For instance, the ninth quote on page 19
indicates that a big job can be completed, even by actions that seem
small and insignificant.
Section Two Through Page 40 Summary and Analysis
On page 21 Franklin lists the qualities that lead to wealth, or fortune.
These qualities include industry, perseverance and frugality. On page 22
Franklin gives tribute to the poet Homer, a tribute that can be extended
to include many other artists as well. Franklin indicates that during his life
Homer, a blind storyteller, was virtually unknown, unappreciated and
poor. After his death, however, there have been many wealthy people in
high places fighting over the right to lay claim to Homer and his writings.
Unfortunately, this is the way life is for many talented writers, authors
and musicians—it is only after they die that their work is truly
appreciated.
On page 23 Franklin shares a bit of advice about making promises. He
writes that while making promises may bring friends, it is important to
keep these promises, or these friends will turn into enemies. The fifth
quote on page 24 gives Franklin's view of education. He believes that
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without an education even intelligent people are wasted resources, like
silver buried in a mine. Franklin also spends a great deal of time warning
against pointing out the faults of others without looking at the faults of
self. This is seen on Page 25 where Franklin encourages his readers to
examine themselves before they comment on the faults of others.
In the second quote on page 26, Franklin treats his readers to a play on
words. In this quote, a man by the name of Fogg attempts to clear up an
English saying by using Greek. By using a more complicated language to
clarify a language known to his listeners, Mr. Fogg leaves his audience in
a proverbial fog. In his first saying on page 27, Franklin muses on the
nature of sin, rationalizing it is forbidden because it is hurtful, not vice
versa. Also on page 27 Franklin scolds those who would be lazy. He
admonishes idle people by writing that God gives these lazy people legs
and arms, and intends for them to use these appendages in a useful way.
In his almanac, Franklin also writes several comments concerning women
and their tongues. One example of this is found in the sixth quote on
page 28, where Franklin indicates that in death a man's heart is the last
organ to stop moving while in a woman it is her tongue. On page 29,
Franklin discusses the anatomy of lies. A lie, he writes, stands on one leg,
indicating that lies are easily pushed over and debunked, while the truth
is planted firmly on two feet. On page 30 Franklin warns his readers not
to overlook inexpensive and seemingly unimportant repairs as these may
cause one's undoing. A popular modern quote indicates that the
difference between men and boys is how much their toys cost. Ever
wonder who was the author of this saying? On page 32 Franklin includes
a saying very similar to the modern version.
Continuing his lawyer theme, on page 34 Franklin exclaims God does
sometimes work wonders. The particular wonder he speaks of is the
wonder of finding an honest lawyer. Next, on page 36, Franklin discloses
the secret of serving God. He suggests the best way to serve God is to do
good to other people. Finally, in the fourth quote on page 38, Franklin
shares with his readers the secret to living with ease, or peace. He writes
that in order to live in peace, people should do what they know they
should do, not just what they want to do.
Section Three Through Page 40 Summary and Analysis
On page 41 Franklin makes a thoughtful observation of discontented men.
He says these men cannot find an "easy chair," meaning they will be
uncomfortable and ill at ease where ever they are. Also on page 41 there
is a saying which refers directly to Bridget, the wife of Saunders. In this
particular quote, Bridget is portrayed as a loud, overbearing woman.
Finally, in the second quote on page 42, Saunders speaks of himself. He
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describes himself as being "poor and lame," qualities which endeared him
to the American people. In his saying, Saunders warns the people not to
act in anger, as these actions will bring nothing but shame.
On page 43 Franklin makes a comment on the affect riches can have on a
person. Franklin aptly notes that a person generally does not have control
of their wealth, but instead their wealth controls them. Another
characteristic that many people share is their tendency to wish for things
for themselves. Franklin notes on page 44 that if a person could have
even half the things that he wished for, his troubles would be increased.
One of Franklin's most popular quotes appears on page 45. The
suggestions to go to bed early and then get up early to get a fresh start
on the new day is Franklin's advice to others who want to gain health,
wealth and wisdom.
Franklin states a simple fact on page 46 that is often overlooked by most
people. If a person does not wish to be caught doing something, Franklin
writes, then they should not do this thing. On page 48, Franklin makes a
statement about the worth of things. He writes that it is not until
something is gone that the worth of that thing is truly appreciated.
Franklin uses the example of well water to illustrate this saying; however,
the truth of the statement can refer to many different things.
On page 49 Franklin treats his readers to a word game, requiring the
reader to remove letters from a word to discover the answer to the riddle.
Next, on page 50, Franklin warns his readers to be very observant of their
intended before marriage, but to learn to not see all that happens after
marriage. This saying is another example of Franklin's views of marriage.
Franklin also includes a word of warning about the delicate nature of the
reputation on page 51. He writes that like glass or china, the reputation is
easily damaged, and once damaged is never the same.
On page 53 Franklin encourages the virtue of patience. He writes that by
practicing patience one can have what they want. This means that by
being willing to wait for what something, one will be more likely to get it.
Along with the virtue of patience, Franklin also encourages learning in his
sayings. On page 55, for instance, Franklin writes that reading,
meditation and discourse will make a man full, profound and clear. On
page 56, Franklin turns the modern day idea of healthy eating on its
head. He disagrees with the idea that partaking of three square meals a
day is a good eating habit. Franklin instead says these eating habits are
an example of bad living.
On page 59 Franklin gives his readers something to think about. If a
person's possessions and riches really belong to them, why are they not
allowed to take these possessions with them after death? Franklin does
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not give the answer to this thought provoking question, letting his
readers instead puzzle it out for themselves. Poetry is another form in
which Franklin arranges his catchy sayings. On page 60 Franklin tells the
story of a maiden in the form of a short poem arranged in rhyming
quatrains.
Section Four Through Page 77 Summary and Analysis
On page 61 Franklin warns his readers not to tell others all they know or
all they owe. Those who talk constantly about all they know are irritating
to those around them. To avoid this situation, Franklin writes, keep some
matters private. On page 62 Franklin describes the characteristics of a
truly great person. These people are those who will not hurt even the
smallest and most insignificant creatures and will also not cower before
those who are supposedly in a higher place than they. On page 63
Franklin writes about the need for people, and things, to serve in their
proper places. As Franklin notes, a handsaw has a proper function, but its
proper function is not that of a razor. Also, people have a proper function.
Some people are called for places in ministry, others for manual labor or
creative pursuits. It is important that everyone find their place in the
world and in society, Franklin says.
On page 64 Franklin presents a short story about the way a person views
a situation differently when it happens to them and when it happens to
others. In his story, a farmer tells a judge that the farmer's bull has killed
one of the judge's cows. When the farmer asks what is to be done, the
judge replies the farmer must give the judge his bull, or else pay the
price of the dead cow. However, when the farmer discloses that it was
instead the judge's bull that killed the farmer's cow, the judge decides the
case should be viewed from a different stance.
In his writing, Franklin often speaks of the dangers of overindulging in
alcohol. One example of this appears on page 65 where Franklin warns
that drinking wine will lessen one's truthfulness. Again, along the lines of
his dislike for overeating, Franklin reports on page 66 that this habit will
cause the brain not to function at its best. In the fourth quote on page
68, Franklin underscores the idea that what a person does is more
important that what they say. Along with the idea that what a person
does is important, Franklin also introduces the idea that having a trade or
marketable talent is important. In the second quote on page 69, Franklin
suggests that if a person has a trade, they have a way to earn both profit
and honor.
On page 70 Franklin includes a simple bit of wisdom that every jury and
judge should follow. By not punishing those who do what is wrong,
Franklin writes, the punishment falls on those who do what is right. Next,
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on page 72, Franklin talks about ignorance. It is not shameful, Franklin
says, to be ignorant. What is shameful, he writes, is the act of being
unwilling to learn. On page 73, Franklin warns his readers to take care
when making a business deal with a friend, as these deals can ruin
friendships. Finally, on page 74, Franklin makes a sad, but true
observation of the common man. It seems, he writes, that men would
rather cover up their faults than correct them.
On page 75, Franklin makes a powerful insight about most people. This
statement seems true of people even today. Franklin says that while all
people will say they want to live a long life, none want to become old.
This quality is common to most people. While we may think we want a
certain blessing, such as a long life, we do not want to have to deal with
the negative aspects that come along with blessing, such as the hazards
of old age. On page 76, Franklin also speaks of a common weakness of
the ordinary man. Shame, Franklin writes, is a feeling that men should
not have, especially when it comes to their background. In this case,
Franklin writes that a person should not be ashamed of their background
no matter how bad this background was. According to Franklin, the only
cause for shame comes from being ashamed of an unfortunate
background.
Franklin ends his almanac with a list of thirteen virtues and suggestions
on how to achieve these qualities. The virtues Franklin lists include
temperance, silence, order, resolution, frugality, industry, sincerity,
justice, moderation, cleanliness, tranquility, chastity and humility. In his
final bit of advice, Franklin warns his readers not to let anything move
them to do something they know to be evil. In this way, he writes, they
will be able to live in peace and with a clean conscious.
Important People
Benjamin Franklin
Franklin is the creator, complier and publisher of "Poor Richard's
Amanack." At one point in his life, he even published a newspaper. Like
the almanac, Franklin wrote articles for his paper under pen names.
However, it is not for his almanac or even his newspaper writing and
publishing that he is best known. Franklin is perhaps best known as one
of the founding fathers of the United States of America. He assisted in
drafting the Declaration of Independence. One of the signatures on the
Declaration of Independence belongs to Benjamin Franklin.
Franklin is also known for his many inventions. During his lifetime, he
invented many things, including the lightning rod, bifocals, a musical
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instrument called the Glass Armonica, swim fins and a efficient heating
stove. Franklin is also well-known for his experiments with electricity,
particularly his kite experiment.
Franklin was also very dedicated to public service and helping people live
better. For this reason, he organized the first volunteer fire department
and also created fire insurance. He also was the first to consider paving
streets as well as lighting public streets. Franklin also organized America's
first public library.
Richard Saunders
Richard Saunders is the fictitious character who writes the almanac for
Franklin. Saunders was Franklin's pseudonym or pen name. Like Franklin,
Saunders is a seeker of knowledge and an astrologer. However, Franklin
generally keeps Saunders separate from himself and often has Saunders
refer to Franklin as his printer. Saunders, along with his wife Bridget,
were familiar and personable characters that readers of the almanac
looked forward to reading about. Saunders was a poor man who wrote his
almanac as a way to raise money to help care for his complaining wife.
Bridget Saunders
Bridget is the wife of Richard Saunders. She is referred to as a loudly
speaking, over-bearing woman.
David
David is a character taken from the Bible. In his saying about David,
Franklin notes that "many princes sin with David, but few repent with
him." It is recorded in the Bible that David sinned by having sexual
intercourse with Bathsheba who was at the time of the encounter married
to another man. When Bathsheba became pregnant as a result of the
encounter, David, thinking he would fix the mess he had made, arranged
for her husband, a member of the military, to come home and spend a
night with his wife. However, Bathsheba's husband refused to sleep with
his wife while his fellow soldiers were on the battlefield. David then had
Bathsheba's husband placed at the frontline in the next battle, an action
which he knew would result in the man's death. After Bathsheba's
husband was killed, David was then free to take Bathsheba as his own
wife. After these treacherous actions, David is confronted by Nathan, a
prophet of God who recounts to David all the sins David committed. As
recorded in Psalm 21 in the Bible, David repents of his sins and receives
God's forgiveness for his actions.
Homer
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Homer is a blind storyteller who lived in Greece in the 8th century BC. He
is believed to be the author of the epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey.
Lubin
On his deathbed, this character included in Franklin's almanac shares
tears with his wife. Public opinion, however, believes Lubin cries because
he is afraid he will die, while his wife fears Lubin will not die.
Caesar
This term is a title given to a person in an imperial or ruling position. Use
of the term was derived from the name of the famous Roman dictator
Julius Caesar.
Jack
Jack is a character who appears in one of Franklin's sayings. Jack is
generous with advice; however, he rarely takes advice from others.
William
Another character Franklin includes in one of his longer sayings. William,
who throws his wife out of the house because she is sick, reasons his
action is justified because he promised in his wedding vows to keep his
wife in sickness and health. His view is that she should not return until
she becomes either healthy or sick to the point of death.
Squire Edward
Squire Edward is a character in one of Franklin's short stories. In the
story in which he appears, Edward tells his friend he has never see the
friend in want. True enough, when the friend finds himself lacking for
money, Edward will have nothing to do with him.
Anne
Anne is a character in one of Franklin's poems who embodies the flighty
nature Franklin seems to think all women have. Anne's husband is dying
and he asks on his deathbed for Anne to promise him she will never
remarry. Anne, however, has already promised herself to another man.
Jesus
In his listing of the thirteen virtues, Franklin suggests the reader imitate
Jesus' example to gain humility. Christians believe that Jesus is the Son
25
of God. Despite His identity, Jesus allowed Himself to be put to death on a
cross to save all people from their sins. While on Earth Jesus tried to
serve others without drawing attention to Himself. He also taught others
how to be better people.
Socrates
Socrates is another person whom Franklin suggests his readers model
their behavior after. Along with Jesus, Socrates is listed as a person to
mimic for his humility. Socrates' idea of humility is different from the
modern meaning of humility which indicates meekness. According to
Socrates, humility consists of the knowledge that no one person knows
everything.
Tim
Tim is a character that appears in one of Franklin's sayings. Tim is so
intelligent that he knows the name for a horse in several different
languages. However, Tim is so lacking in common sense that instead of
buying a horse to ride, he buys a cow.
Objects/Places
The Almanac
An almanac, spelled almanack in Franklin's time, is a yearly publication
which contains information including sun and moon phases, recipes,
weather reports and predictions. Many people use the information in an
almanac to determine the best time to plant their crops, have surgery or
even sell their homes. Along with the usual information, Franklin includes
bits of wisdom and sayings in his almanac.
Arse
This British slang word refers to the part of the body that you sit on. This
spelling is one example of Franklin's use of colloquial spellings.
Two Precious Jewels
The jewels Franklin refers to are time and good advice.
Groat
A groat is a silver coin worth about four English pennies.
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Jole
A jole is a colloquial term for the jowl or lower jaw.
Tomtit
A Tomtit is a small but very active songbird.
Pelf
A term which refers to money or riches, especially if these riches are
gained by dishonest means.
Scepter
A wand or staff used to represent the power or authority of a monarch. In
his saying that includes the term scepter, Franklin says that a friend is a
true scepter.
Whig and Tory Parties
The Whigs and Tories were two opposing English political parties. In one
of his sayings, Franklin speaks of the blending of the Whig and Tory
parties.
Dead Sea
A salt water lake located between Israel and Jordan. In one saying,
Franklin compares the Dead Sea to the quality of idleness.
Rogue
A dishonest person, however, generally one who is very likable.
Steel and Diamonds
These are two things Franklin describes in one of this sayings as being
very hard. He likens their hardness to the difficulty of truly knowing one's
self.
Wealth
Franklin does not discourage his readers against gaining wealth, however,
he does suggest that wealth is to be enjoyed, not simply hoarded.
27
Three Faithful Friends
Franklin identifies in one of his sayings three friends who will always be
faithful. These include an old dog, an old wife and money at hand.
Books and Readers
Franklin uses these objects to represent the relationship between men
and women.
Paintings and Fightings
Franklin insists these two things are best seen at a distance.
The Belly
It is this body part tthathe Franklin indicates will cause the most trouble
for a person. By eating and filling the belly too full, people become lazy
and fat. When a person ignores the cries of the stomach and eats only
what he needs to live, Franklin indicates the person will be more
productive, healthy and wealthier.
The Philosopher's Stone
This particular stone is identified by Franklin as being content. He writes
that all that is touched by contentedness will turn to gold.
An Honest Man
This type of man is described by Franklin as being one who will not take
either money or praise that he has not earned.
Themes
Characteristics of Friends
One of the topics Franklin references often in his sayings is the endearing
characteristics of friends. In one quote, he writes good friends are
prudent and faithful. In another, he says that a man's best friends are an
old wife, and old dog and easy money. Franklin also indicates that a true
friend is one of the greatest possessions a person can have. He compares
a good friend to the scepter of a prince. Franklin believes friends are such
an important influence that he suggests his readers be slow and take
their time about choosing who will be their friends. He also makes the
28
suggestion that much thought should be put into any decision to change
the people one calls friends.
Although it is obvious Franklin thinks highly of friends, he also offers a
few warnings about these people. He writes that an untrue friend is worse
than an open enemy. Franklin also warns that while making promises
may help one gain friends, failure to keep these promises will turn these
friends into enemies. Also, in order to keep friends, Franklin suggests one
should look more closely at his own faults than he does at the faults of
others. Franklins also suggests to his readers not to choose a foolish
person for a friend. In a final word of warning, Franklin writes that any
business dealings between friends should be well notated since it is
through these dealings that many friends are lost.
Lawyers
Remarks about lawyers also appear quite often in Franklin's writings. It
can be inferred from his remarks about lawyers that Franklin does not
care for people in this profession and feels most lawyers are dishonest.
For instance, Franklin writes that two lawyers can tear a common man
apart, somewhat like two cats do to a fish. He also indicates that lawyers
do not make good neighbors. Franklin refers in one of his longer sayings
to a lawyer who is near death and makes out his own will. The lawyer
reasons that since he made his money from mad and frantic people, he
should leave his riches to the same. At one point in his writings, Franklin
also indicates that few lawyers actually follow the law. Finally, in one of
his more humorous quotes about lawyers, Franklin exclaims that God
does still work wonders—the wonder Franklin writes of is an honest
lawyer.
Wives and Marriage
The topic of wives and marriage is the only one which Franklin seems to
give a mixed view of in his sayings. For example, in one saying, Franklin
will praise wives and the institution of marriage. He even goes so far as to
say that the wife is the soul and life of a home. He also notes that
unmarried men are not complete. In other quotes, however, Franklin is
critical of wives. For instance, he criticizes women for their sharp tongues.
In fact, Franklin even portrays Saunders' wife Bridget as a loud woman
with a sharp tongue.
However, Franklin does also admit in his sayings that the husband is also
responsible for the happiness of the wife and the marriage. For instance,
in one place Franklin writes that good wives are made by good husbands.
Franklin also takes the opportunity to make fun of husbands. In one
saying he indicates that good husbands are scarce and very hard to find.
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Franklin also pokes a bit of fun at the institution of marriage in general. In
one of his quotes, Franklin defines marriage as being the only institution
that exists where those who are not married want to be married and
those who are married wish they were not married.
In some of his sayings and short stories, Franklin even addresses the
subject of abuse between husbands and wives. His treatment of the issue
is not one-sided—some quotes feature the husband being cruel to the
wife while others talk about the wife being mean to the husband.
Generally, these sayings address the matter in a lighthearted manner;
however, these references let Franklin's readers know he is aware this
type of abuse does occur. It is uncertain whether Franklin condones this
type of abuse, but it is common during his time period.
Importance of Saving Money
Throughout his almanac, Franklin stresses the importance of not being
wasteful. He is perhaps most critical of those who are lazy and those who
do not make good use of both the time and resources they are given. For
Franklin, it appears that money equals time and time equals money.
Those who waste time also waste money. In fact, on page 10 there are a
series of quotes that deal with the wise handling of money. These quotes
describe how much a person can stand to lose by wasting what might
seem to be a small amount of time or money.
Although Franklin encourages his readers to save money and not be
wasteful, at the same time, he does not encourage or promote wealth. In
some of his sayings, for instance, he describes the happiest people as
those who are content with what they have. Franklin believes these happy
people are those who have neither too little or too much. He also
indicates that true wealth is found in being thankful for what one has,
however much or little it is. If one does have wealth, however, Franklin
encourages his readers to enjoy this wealth and not hoard it.
Problems with Self
In many of his quotes Franklin refers to the amount of trouble we humans
give ourselves. He admits that conquering the self is perhaps the most
difficult task any person faces. In some quotes, Franklin writes that all
people have the ability to deceive themselves into thinking they are not
as bad as they actually are or as bad as others around them. However, he
challanges his readers to look more closely at their own faults than at the
faults of other. He suggests that one would do better to correct their one
small flaw than to point out another person's large character flaw.
Franklin warns his readers not to judge others more harshly than they
judge themselves. It is better, Franklin writes, to mind one's own
30
business and clean up one's own faults before pointing out the faults of
others. This is because one's own shortcomings may be worse than those
of others.
Despite that fact he encourages self improvement, Franklin also admits
that most people have an inability to recognize or change their own
faults. In fact, he writes at one point that a person who learns to conquer
himself and can control himself is more worthy of praise and respect than
those who conquer countries. Finally, on the theme of the problems
people cause themselves, Franklin writes that people can be very self
deceptive. This self deception is another way people cause problems for
themselves.
Dealing with One's Own Business
There are many places in his almanac where Franklin writes about proper
business practices. The main point Franklin seems to want to impress
upon his readers is that each individual should mind their own business
and not worry about the business of another person. For example, in one
of his sayings Franklin speaks of people who become involved in
government and forget to attend to their task at hand. He suggests that it
is this action that causes others to be hurt or inconvenienced. This
warning to tend to one's own business is one that relates to all people,
both those running a place of business and those providing labor.
Along the lines of dealing with one's own business, Franklin notes that
those who work will not know hunger. If a person does not do what he is
supposed to, they will experience want. Franklin also points out that
those who have a marketable skill, or a skill that can earn them money,
have a constant source of income and a secure future. In conclusion,
Franklin adds a final suggestion for those considering becoming involved
in a public business. In short, Franklin warns that public business is a bad
idea. However, he suggests that those who do choose to become business
people should care for their business carefully so that it does not get the
better of them.
Taking Care of the Body
Another topic Franklin writes about often is the topic of taking proper care
of the body. Most of his advice centers on when not to eat and what not
to eat. For instance, Franklin suggests not eating late at night. He also
does not think that eating three square meals a day is a healthy way to
eat. Franklin seems to believe that eating less is better and healthier;
that one should eat only what one needs in order to live. Franklin's advice
on living well also includes the suggestion that one not gorge themselves
on either food or drink.
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Sleep is another topic Franklin writes about in his sayings. For instance, in
one quote he suggests his readers go to bed early and get up early in
order to be healthy. Those who study the circadian rhythm know that
Franklin's wisdom actually has a basis in scientific knowledge. The body is
designed to go to sleep when the sun goes down and wake up with the
sun's first rays. People who follow this routine tend to be healthier and
less sleep deprived that those who try to force their bodies to follow a
different schedule. It follows that one who has had a good night's sleep
and feels good in the morning will be more productive at work, and thus
have the opportunity to be wealthy.
Themes
Characteristics of Friends
One of the topics Franklin references often in his sayings is the endearing
characteristics of friends. In one quote, he writes good friends are
prudent and faithful. In another, he says that a man's best friends are an
old wife, and old dog and easy money. Franklin also indicates that a true
friend is one of the greatest possessions a person can have. He compares
a good friend to the scepter of a prince. Franklin believes friends are such
an important influence that he suggests his readers be slow and take
their time about choosing who will be their friends. He also makes the
suggestion that much thought should be put into any decision to change
the people one calls friends.
Although it is obvious Franklin thinks highly of friends, he also offers a
few warnings about these people. He writes that an untrue friend is worse
than an open enemy. Franklin also warns that while making promises
may help one gain friends, failure to keep these promises will turn these
friends into enemies. Also, in order to keep friends, Franklin suggests one
should look more closely at his own faults than he does at the faults of
others. Franklins also suggests to his readers not to choose a foolish
person for a friend. In a final word of warning, Franklin writes that any
business dealings between friends should be well notated since it is
through these dealings that many friends are lost.
Lawyers
Remarks about lawyers also appear quite often in Franklin's writings. It
can be inferred from his remarks about lawyers that Franklin does not
care for people in this profession and feels most lawyers are dishonest.
For instance, Franklin writes that two lawyers can tear a common man
apart, somewhat like two cats do to a fish. He also indicates that lawyers
do not make good neighbors. Franklin refers in one of his longer sayings
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to a lawyer who is near death and makes out his own will. The lawyer
reasons that since he made his money from mad and frantic people, he
should leave his riches to the same. At one point in his writings, Franklin
also indicates that few lawyers actually follow the law. Finally, in one of
his more humorous quotes about lawyers, Franklin exclaims that God
does still work wonders—the wonder Franklin writes of is an honest
lawyer.
Wives and Marriage
The topic of wives and marriage is the only one which Franklin seems to
give a mixed view of in his sayings. For example, in one saying, Franklin
will praise wives and the institution of marriage. He even goes so far as to
say that the wife is the soul and life of a home. He also notes that
unmarried men are not complete. In other quotes, however, Franklin is
critical of wives. For instance, he criticizes women for their sharp tongues.
In fact, Franklin even portrays Saunders' wife Bridget as a loud woman
with a sharp tongue.
However, Franklin does also admit in his sayings that the husband is also
responsible for the happiness of the wife and the marriage. For instance,
in one place Franklin writes that good wives are made by good husbands.
Franklin also takes the opportunity to make fun of husbands. In one
saying he indicates that good husbands are scarce and very hard to find.
Franklin also pokes a bit of fun at the institution of marriage in general. In
one of his quotes, Franklin defines marriage as being the only institution
that exists where those who are not married want to be married and
those who are married wish they were not married.
In some of his sayings and short stories, Franklin even addresses the
subject of abuse between husbands and wives. His treatment of the issue
is not one-sided—some quotes feature the husband being cruel to the
wife while others talk about the wife being mean to the husband.
Generally, these sayings address the matter in a lighthearted manner;
however, these references let Franklin's readers know he is aware this
type of abuse does occur. It is uncertain whether Franklin condones this
type of abuse, but it is common during his time period.
Importance of Saving Money
Throughout his almanac, Franklin stresses the importance of not being
wasteful. He is perhaps most critical of those who are lazy and those who
do not make good use of both the time and resources they are given. For
Franklin, it appears that money equals time and time equals money.
Those who waste time also waste money. In fact, on page 10 there are a
series of quotes that deal with the wise handling of money. These quotes
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describe how much a person can stand to lose by wasting what might
seem to be a small amount of time or money.
Although Franklin encourages his readers to save money and not be
wasteful, at the same time, he does not encourage or promote wealth. In
some of his sayings, for instance, he describes the happiest people as
those who are content with what they have. Franklin believes these happy
people are those who have neither too little or too much. He also
indicates that true wealth is found in being thankful for what one has,
however much or little it is. If one does have wealth, however, Franklin
encourages his readers to enjoy this wealth and not hoard it.
Problems with Self
In many of his quotes Franklin refers to the amount of trouble we humans
give ourselves. He admits that conquering the self is perhaps the most
difficult task any person faces. In some quotes, Franklin writes that all
people have the ability to deceive themselves into thinking they are not
as bad as they actually are or as bad as others around them. However, he
challanges his readers to look more closely at their own faults than at the
faults of other. He suggests that one would do better to correct their one
small flaw than to point out another person's large character flaw.
Franklin warns his readers not to judge others more harshly than they
judge themselves. It is better, Franklin writes, to mind one's own
business and clean up one's own faults before pointing out the faults of
others. This is because one's own shortcomings may be worse than those
of others.
Despite that fact he encourages self improvement, Franklin also admits
that most people have an inability to recognize or change their own
faults. In fact, he writes at one point that a person who learns to conquer
himself and can control himself is more worthy of praise and respect than
those who conquer countries. Finally, on the theme of the problems
people cause themselves, Franklin writes that people can be very self
deceptive. This self deception is another way people cause problems for
themselves.
Dealing with One's Own Business
There are many places in his almanac where Franklin writes about proper
business practices. The main point Franklin seems to want to impress
upon his readers is that each individual should mind their own business
and not worry about the business of another person. For example, in one
of his sayings Franklin speaks of people who become involved in
government and forget to attend to their task at hand. He suggests that it
is this action that causes others to be hurt or inconvenienced. This
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warning to tend to one's own business is one that relates to all people,
both those running a place of business and those providing labor.
Along the lines of dealing with one's own business, Franklin notes that
those who work will not know hunger. If a person does not do what he is
supposed to, they will experience want. Franklin also points out that
those who have a marketable skill, or a skill that can earn them money,
have a constant source of income and a secure future. In conclusion,
Franklin adds a final suggestion for those considering becoming involved
in a public business. In short, Franklin warns that public business is a bad
idea. However, he suggests that those who do choose to become business
people should care for their business carefully so that it does not get the
better of them.
Taking Care of the Body
Another topic Franklin writes about often is the topic of taking proper care
of the body. Most of his advice centers on when not to eat and what not
to eat. For instance, Franklin suggests not eating late at night. He also
does not think that eating three square meals a day is a healthy way to
eat. Franklin seems to believe that eating less is better and healthier;
that one should eat only what one needs in order to live. Franklin's advice
on living well also includes the suggestion that one not gorge themselves
on either food or drink.
Sleep is another topic Franklin writes about in his sayings. For instance, in
one quote he suggests his readers go to bed early and get up early in
order to be healthy. Those who study the circadian rhythm know that
Franklin's wisdom actually has a basis in scientific knowledge. The body is
designed to go to sleep when the sun goes down and wake up with the
sun's first rays. People who follow this routine tend to be healthier and
less sleep deprived that those who try to force their bodies to follow a
different schedule. It follows that one who has had a good night's sleep
and feels good in the morning will be more productive at work, and thus
have the opportunity to be wealthy.
Style
Perspective
In general, Franklin was a person who loved learning and loved helping
other people. Publishing his almanacs gave him a chance to share some
of his wisdom with others in a way that was both thought provoking and
at the same time humorous and casual. Although Franklin was not wellschooled, he spent much time reading and teaching himself in this way.
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Even in his time, Franklin was a well-known inventor and experimenter.
Franklin invented several things that most people wer very familiar with
and used to make their daily lives easier. These things included the
Franklin stove, street lights and bifocals. Franklin was also a well-known
politician and one of the founding fathers of the United States of America.
For these reasons, Franklin was respected and well liked by the people of
his time.
However, one does need to consider that Franklin wrote his almanac
using the pen name of Saunders. It is known that Franklin published the
almanac each year. However, Franklin tried to separate himself and
Saunders. For this reason, Saunders would often refer to Franklin as his
"publisher." It is uncertain whether or not Franklin's readers were aware
that Franklin was actually the author of the almanac. However, Saunders
portrayed himself as an under-privileged working person, much the same
as the people who enjoyed the almanac. For this reason, Franklin's
audience related to Saunders and his misfortunes.
As a philanthropist, however, Franklin enjoyed helping people and wanted
his publication to challenge his audience to become better people. For this
reason Franklin included his sayings about how to conquer self and ways
to enjoy a healthy life. Whether his readers believed the intelligent
sayings included in the almanac came from Franklin or Saunders, it is
known Franklin intended his readers to use the information in the
almanac to better themselves.
Tone
The tone of Franklin's almanac is very subjective. The sayings and bits of
wisdom are based solely on Franklin's personal opinion and his views.
Although Franklin intended his wisdom to be used by his readers to better
themselves, it is recognized that the sayings are only Franklin's personal
opinion on any particular subject. The reader is allowed to come to his or
her own conclusion about whether or not he accepts the ideas presented
in the material.
It is because of this subjective tone that Franklin chooses to write his
almanac under the pen name of Saunders. In this way, Franklin can give
his honest view of his subjects while at the same time enjoying his
anonymity. In modern times, it would probably be considered scandalous
for a politician to write such sayings, especially ones referring to business
and government, under a false name. In Franklin's time, however, it was
an accepted practice.
Structure
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This book is simply a collection of sayings and quotations compiled by
Franklin. There are no chapter divisions or any other types of divisions or
separations in the text. There are no indications when any of these quotes
were written or which issues of Franklin's almanac they were published in.
The quotes are also not grouped according to any particular theme or
topic; they are just a variety of listed quotes.
The major benefit of this format is that it allows the reader to come to his
own conclusion about the meaning of each of Franklin's sayings. It also
allows the reader to discover for himself themes contained within the
quotes as well as the meanings of the sayings themselves. However, the
structure is difficult because each quote stands alone as one small
section. It would be impossible to try to summarize the entire work
without simply rewriting each quote.
Individual quotes or sayings generally consist of just a line or two of text.
However on a few occasions, Franklin tells short stories in the form of
poems. These poems generally have a simple rhyming sequence and
sometimes the reader must alter their pronunciation of a word or two in
order to make the rhyme scheme work. Another feature of the structure
of Franklin's writing that some readers may have a difficult time with is
his use of colloquial spellings and phrases. For instance, Franklin
sometimes uses the word "thee" instead of "you." He also inserts capital
letters in his writing in odd places, such as the middle of sentence or a
line of poetry. These capitals sometimes indicate a personified quality,
and sometimes just give emphasis to a certain word or phrase.
Quotes
"Who has deciev'd thee so oft as thy self?" p. 6.
"Be slow in chusing a friend, slower in changing," p. 11.
"In a discreet man's mouth a publick thing is private," p. 14.
"If your head is wax, don't walk in the Sun," p. 24.
"Pay what you owe, and you'll know what is your own," p. 31.
"Eat to live; live not to eat," p. 34.
"Lost time is never found again," p. 41.
"Haste makes waste," p. 45.
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"There is no Man so bad but he secretly respects the Good," p. 51.
"Blessed is he that expects nothing, for he shall never be disappointed,"
p. 60.
"Three may keep a secret if two of them are dead," p. 73.
"These Blessings, Reader, may Heav'n grant to thee;
A faithful Friend, equal in Love's degree;
Land fruitful, never conscious of the Curse,
A liberal Heart, and never-failing Purse;
A smiling Conscience, a contented mind;
A temp'rate knowledge with true Wisdom join'd;
A life as long as fair, and when expir'd,
A kindly death, unfear'd as undesir'd," p. 74.
"To-morrow you'll reform, you always cry;
In what far country does that morrow lie,
That 'tis so mighty long ere it arrive?
Beyond the Indes does this morrow live?
'Tis so far-fetched, this morrow, that I fear
'Twill be both very old and very dear," p. 12.
"He that is of Opinion Money will do every Thing may well be suspected of
doing every Thing for Money," p. 46.
"Let no pleasure tempt thee, no profit allure thee, no ambition corrupt
thee, no example sway thee, no persuasion move thee, to do anything
which thou knowest to be evil; so shalt thou always live jollily; for a good
conscience is a continual Christmas. Adieu," p. 77.
Topics for Discussion
Consider Franklin's disguise of Saunders as he writes his almanac. In
today's culture, if a person such as Franklin wrote similar sayings, how
would the public react? Would it be acceptable? Why or why not?
In your opinion are Franklin's sayings as timely today as they were when
they were written? Explain your answer.
Search Franklin's sayings for examples of his view of good business
practices. Using these quotes, formulate what Franklin would have
considered a good business.
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Consider Franklin's descriptions of friends and the characteristics of good
friends. Are these characteristics you would want in a friend? Why or why
not?
Find examples of literary elements, such as simile, metaphor,
personification, symbolism, oxymoron and symbolism, in Franklin's
sayings. Discuss how Franklin uses these elements to make his point in a
humorous way.
Consider Franklin's views of both lawyers and preachers as portrayed in
his sayings. Does Franklin appear to think highly of the men who
practiced these careers? Give reasons for your answer.
Consider Franklin's views of wives and marriage. Why does he deliver
such mixed messages on this topic?
Generally, an almanac is a yearly publication that contains information
about moon phases and charts that tell which crops or plants should be
planted at what times during the year. Franklin's almanac, however, is a
bit different in that he also included bits of wisdom, poems and sayings.
Discuss Franklin's reasons for including these sayings or proverbs in his
almanac.
Letters from An American Farmer & What is an American?
When, in 1759, Voltaire published his Candide, Crèvecœur was already
planning to cultivate his garden, hewn out of the Pennsylvania frontier.
Like Voltaire’s naïve hero, he had seen too much of the horrors of the
civilized world and was more than ready to retire to his bucolic paradise,
where for nineteen years he lived in peace and happiness until the
civilized world intruded upon him and his family with the outbreak of the
American Revolution. The twelve essays that make up his Letters from an
American Farmer are, ostensibly at least, the product of a hand unfamiliar
with the pen. The opening letter presents the central theme quite clearly:
The decadence of European civilization makes the American frontier one
of the great hopes for a regeneration of humanity. Crèvecœur wonders
why people travel to Italy to “amuse themselves in viewing the ruins of
temples . . . half-ruined amphitheatres and the putrid fevers of the
Campania must fill the mind with most melancholy reflections.” By
contrast, Crèvecœur delights in the humble rudiments of societies
spreading everywhere in the colonies, people converting large forests into
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pleasing fields and creating thirteen provinces of easy subsistence and
political harmony. He has his interlocutor say of him, “Your mind is . . . a
Tabula rasa where spontaneous and strong impressions are delineated
with felicity.” Similarly, he sees the American continent as a clean slate
on which people can inscribe a new society and the good life. It may be
said that Crèvecœur is a Lockean gone romantic, but retaining just
enough practical good sense to see that reality is not rosy. The book is
the crude, occasionally eloquent, testimony of a man trying desperately
to convince himself and his readers that it was possible to live the
idealized life advocated by Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
With a becoming modesty, appropriate to a man who had learned English
at sixteen, Crèvecœur begins with a confession of his literary inadequacy
and decides simply to write down what he would say. His style, however,
is not smoothly colloquial. Except in a few passages, in which conviction
generates enthusiasm, one senses the strain of the unlettered man
writing with feeling but not cunning.
The first image Crèvecœur presents is perhaps a bit too idyllic for modern
taste. He dandles his little boy on the plow as his wife sits at the edge of
the field knitting and praising the straightness of the furrows, while birds
fill the air with summer melodies. “Who can listen unmoved to the sweet
love tales of our robins told from tree to tree?” This is, nevertheless, the
testimony of a man who for nineteen years actually lived at the edge of
the wilderness, three hundred miles from the Atlantic. He was no Henry
David Thoreau at Walden Pond, within easy walking distance of friends,
family, and a highly developed New England culture at Concord. He was,
instead, a responsible man, who cleared 371 acres of virgin land and
raised enough crops and animals to provide for his family, black workers,
and all peaceful strangers who chanced to appear at his door. Also unlike
Thoreau (with whom he inevitably invites comparison), Crèvecœur was
acutely aware of his social responsibilities and enormously proud of the
way in that they could be fulfilled in the new world. It was the third
epistle, “What Is an American?” that caught the attention of Benjamin
Franklin and the Europeans of the Age of Enlightenment:
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[America] is not composed, as in Europe, of great lords who possess
everything, and of a herd of people who have nothing. Here are no
aristocratical families, no courts, no kings, no bishops, no ecclesiastical
dominion, no invisible power giving to a few a very visible one; no great
manufacturers employing thousands, no great refinements of luxury. The
rich and the poor are not so far removed from each other as they are in
Europe. . . . We are the most perfect society now existing in the world.
Enthusiastic as this description is, it is not as extravagant as it might
seem; Crèvecœur does not claim that the Colonies had founded the best
of all possible worlds. He is, for example, acutely aware that religious
influence gradually declines as one goes west, and that, instead of
liberating, this decline reduces humanity to a perfect state of war, each
against each. Yet Crèvecœur rejoices that there are almost no
concentrated religious sects preying upon each other: “Zeal in Europe is
confined . . . a grain of powder enclosed; here it burns away in the open
air, and consumes without effect.”
Furthermore, not every man succeeds after arriving in the New World—
only the sober, the honest, the industrious. In his “History of Andrew, the
Hebridean,” Crèvecœur presents a case history of the Horatio Alger hero
in primitive America, the story of a simple illiterate Scot who, after four
years of sweat and toil became a prospering freeholder. Franklin had
occasion to caution his friends in France that Crèvecœur’s was a highly
colored account.
Part of the coloring is contributed by the pervasive nature imagery. The
freedom and beauty of birds seem to symbolize the condition Europeans
might achieve when immersing themselves in nature. Crèvecœur
describes hours spent in quiet admiration of the hummingbirds, tells
regretfully of shooting a kingbird to rescue bees, describes the feeding
and care of quail in the winter. Insects, too, fascinated him; he kept a
hornet’s nest in the house. The letter on rattlers and copperheads is
horrendous and awesome. Crèvecœur tells of copperheads enticing birds
by the power of their eyes, of a defanged rattler trained as a pet, of a pair
of snakes in mortal combat. Most curious of all is the account of a farmer
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who kicked away a snake that had thrust its fangs into his boot. After
pulling off his boots that night, he suddenly became violently ill, writhed
horribly, and died. His son, inheriting the boots, suffered the same fate. A
neighbor, next in succession, almost died, too, but was saved when a
shrewd doctor located the poison-filled fangs stuck in the boot.
Crèvecœur in these passages reveals an exciting narrative power.
Apart from the agricultural life inland, Crèvecœur praises most the
industry and sobriety of the coastal fishing communities at Nantucket and
Martha’s Vineyard, where “perfect equanimity prevails.” At Nantucket,
five thousand prosperous people inhabited a place which in Europe would
have housed a few simple fishermen. Their Yankee ingenuity and sound
business sense had enabled them to build—beginning with one whale
boat—a whaling fleet that ranged even to the South Seas. Martha’s
Vineyard was already the “nursery” of seamen for the entire East Coast.
So detailed is Crèvecœur’s description of the chase, the ferocity of the
whale’s struggle, the dangers from sharks and thrasher whales, the
processing of blubber into whale oil—in short, the entire experience—that
one wonders how Herman Melville could have overlooked it in compiling
the extracts in Moby Dick (1851).
Crèvecœur found Nantucket a model community in that it contained only
one minister (a Presbyterian—the Quakers, much to Crèvecœur’s delight,
do not have special ministers), two doctors, one lawyer (seldom
employed), no soldiers, and no governors. “Happy the people who are
subject to so mild a government; happy the government which has to
rule over such harmless and such industrious subjects! . . . I wish I had it
in my power to send the most persecuting bigot I could find in —— to the
whale fisheries; in three or four years you would find him a much more
tractable man and therefore a better Christian.” Colonial Nantucket was
apparently not perfect; the Quakers persisted in their ungrammatical
English, did not tolerate any deviation from their sober customs and
homespun dress, sternly prohibited music, singing, and dancing. “Such an
island . . . is not the place where gay travellers should resort in order to
enjoy the variety of pleasures the more splendid towns of this continent
afford.” Crèvecœur also reports, obviously misled by some notorious
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gossip, that the women were addicted to opium. “But,” he philosophizes,
“where is the society perfectly free from error and folly?”
Crèvecœur’s criticism is reserved for the most European of American
cities, which he called Charles-Town, “gayest in America . . . centre of our
beau monde.” Lawyers, planters, and merchants make up the population,
all addicted to dangerous excesses of all kinds. At the heart of this social
corruption, Crèvecœur finds the brutal institution of slavery. He tells the
horrifying tale of his chance encounter with a slave who had been driven
to kill an overseer. The slave’s punishment was to be suspended from a
tree in a cage for two days. Vicious birds had already plucked out his eyes
and bared his cheekbones. No sooner were the birds dispersed than
swarms of insects covered him. The miserable man begged for water and
hoped it was poisoned. “Gracious God!” cries Crèvecœur, “to what end is
the introduction of so many beings into [such] a mode of existence! . . .
Is there then no superintending power who conducts the moral operations
of the world?”
Some of Crèvecœur’s faith is restored by the spectacle of the humble,
kind, and generous aspect of William Bartram, a Quaker botanist, who
employed black men as salaried, free men, workers on his plantation,
companions at his table, and worshipers at the Friends’ meetinghouse.
Letters from an American Farmer ends in ominous tones of impending
tragedy. Unwilling to commit his allegiance to either the British or the
colonists, Crèvecœur finds it necessary to flee: “Must I in order to be
called a faithful subject, coolly and philosophically say it is necessary for
the good of Britain that my children’s brains should be dashed against the
walls of the house in which they were reared; that my wife should be
stabbed and scalped before my face; that I should be either murdered or
captivated?” To escape such a fate, Crèvecœur develops an intricate plan
to take his family to join an American Indian settlement in the
uncultivated wilderness (a plan which he never actually carried out). It is
tragically ironic that this mild Frenchman’s absolute certainty of the
blessings of life in the colonies should be so violently shattered after
nineteen years of expending all his energies to make a decent life
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possible. It is appropriate that his final impulse is to immerse himself
deeper into nature by joining the Indians. Whatever flaws it may
have, Letters from an American Farmer is the most sympathetic and
thoughtful of all eighteenth century analyses of frontier life and its
shaping influence on the emerging American character.
** Crevecoueur, in his letter ‘What is an American’ attempts to carve out a unique
identity for the ‘American’, an identity that would unify the dwellers of this sprawling
country under one roof while at the same time it establishes its differences from
Europe from where it derives most of its numbers. Crevecoueur describes the country
as the great melting pot of the world, a place where a truly diverse set of people come
together and forgetting religious, social, economic, national as well as linguistic
differences are molten into one, that is, an American. The process of becoming one
forgetting all differences involves the common pursuit of what has since then come to
be known as ‘the American Dream’. America, the land of equality, liberty and
opportunity welcomes every new arrival on its shores with open arms. The new
arrival, in his/her turn, grateful for all that this new country has to offer, internalizes
the American Dream, and in the midst of his/her pursuit of an honest, respectable, free
and happy life becomes an American leaving his/her previous identity behind.The
concept that is America has come a very long way from the time of Crevecoueur. Now,
the ‘American’ identity in the guise of a ‘green card’ is perhaps the most sought after
throughout the world. Being an ‘American’ is no longer just an opportunity to be
grabbed freely, it is privileged bestowed upon the best and brightest from all over the
world. However, some things never change. America still remains the great melting
pot of the world. Even more so in the present, for unlike in Crevecouer’s times, it is
not only the Europeans or different sects of Christianity that arrive at the shores of
this ‘land of dreams’ but people from every possible nation and belonging to every
possible religion co-habit in peace sharing in on the modern day versions of the
‘American Dream.’
*************************************************************************************’
On Being Brought from Africa to America
The Poem
The four heroic couplets that constitute Phillis Wheatley’s “On Being
Brought from Africa to America” delve deeply into the psyche of the
young African American slave narrator who attempts to come to terms
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with her being torn from her native African soil and being forcibly
relocated to colonial America. The poem’s original title, “Thoughts on
being brought from Africa to America,” when written in 1768, clearly
indicates that the work was intended to represent the speaker’s
pondering her situation rather than serving as a mere statement, which is
often misread for various reasons.
The first quatrain sets the tone for most readings of the poem by seeming
to parallel spiritual and physical rescue. The speaker’s “mercy” was the
underlying factor that took her from her home, her “Pagan land,” and
brought her to a world centered upon “redemption [which she] neither
fought nor knew.” The result of her resettlement, the narrator says, was
her becoming aware “That there’s a God, that there’s a Saviour too.” This
resulting understanding, no doubt, echoes the rationalization that many
who brought slaves to the new world used to vindicate their actions.
The second and concluding quatrain moves Wheatley’s meditation to a
new realm, in which the narrator places herself and her race into context
with the views of those who eventually enslaved them. Regardless of
intention, the takers of slaves held the blacks in low esteem. To illustrate
her point, Wheatley uses such terms as “our sable race,” “diabolic die,”
and “black as Cain” as descriptors for those thrust into slavery. The
perceptions depicted in the second quatrain seemingly intensify the
significance of the situation presented in the first.
Taken together, these two quatrains set up a rhetorical paradigm by
which many readers confront Wheatley and this poem and come away
with the perception that Wheatley is writing a poem of gratitude, much in
the vein of her many elegies that address important individuals who have
passed from the scene but whose influence continues. In “On Being
Brought from Africa to America,” Wheatley mourns the passing of
freedom in spite of the superficial thanks expressed by the narrator.
“On Being Brought from Africa to America,” as well as the other works
collected in Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, has brought
Wheatley both admirers and detractors. For her work, Wheatley is now
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known as the first published African American writer. Because of the
superficial complacency of the narrator’s statements, many have criticized
the poem for denying Wheatley’s real situation and voicing the sentiments
of her enslavers and for her not speaking out more clearly for her race.
Forms and Devices
Much of Wheatley’s acclaim has come from her elegies that celebrated the
lives of great men such as George Washington and the Reverend George
Whitefield. However, many of her most complex and delving poems are
her meditations, which investigate such abstract concepts as fancy and
imagination. For what has become her most famous work, “On Being
Brought from Africa to America,” Wheatley chose to use the meditation as
the form for her contemplation of her enslavement, because the narrator
(Wheatley) meditates on the institution of slavery as it applies to her
instead of making a more vocal condemnation or acceptance.
The first-person meditation makes the message of the poem more
personal than if it had been presented in another pedantic
pronouncement. “On Being Brought from Africa to America” is clearly an
internal monologue through which the narrator bares her soul and voices
her conclusion that even “Negroes, black as Cain,/ May be refin’d, and
join th’ angelic train” in spite of their captors’ strong belief that the dark
race is hopeless and greatly inferior.
Wheatley utilizes a white/dark contrast to demonstrate the narrator’s
movement from a life of misunderstanding and ignorance in a
“Pagan land” to a life of deliverance and revelation in her new home. Up
until the last line of the poem, Wheatley inserts such dark language as
“benighted soul,” “sable race,” “diabolic die,” and “black as Cain” to depict
both her and her race’s real and perceived place in the psychological
world of their new homes. Although the last line contains no definite
reference to light, Wheatley creates a light tone when she says, “refin’d,
and join th’ angelic train.” Thus, the possibility of a darkened soul’s
moving into a spiritual light under the most adverse of conditions
becomes evident.
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Wheatley even utilizes semiotics, although the term may have been
unknown to her, when she creates a title which illustrates the underlying
concept of her poem. Wheatley draws attention to her being forced to
leave her home instead of to her being taken to a better place by titling
her poem “On Being Brought from Africa to America.” By placing Africa
first, Wheatley intimates that her past holds as much if not more
importance than her future.
However, the strongest but often missed device to be found in “On Being
Brought from Africa to America” is Wheatley’s subtle irony which she
presents through limited use of italicized words. This irony allows
Wheatley to placate her white reading public by permitting them to hear
what makes them feel good while, in fact, she is saying exactly how
wrong her captors’ perceptions are. For instance, her readers no doubt
understood her reference to “my Paganland” as a condemnation of the
place from which they had freed her. Rather, when one accepts
Wheatley’s irony, “Pagan land” illuminates the concept that the most
ungodly of actions came when the rescuers forced Wheatley and others
into enslavement. This same ironic approach should be considered when
pondering the word “Saviour.” Although one immediately thinks of a
religious salvation, the italics draw attention to the specific word and to
the distinct possibility that the speaker did not completely want to be
saved from the life she knew.
It is in line seven, however, that the significance of italics becomes
evident with the inclusion of the proper nouns “Christians,” “Negroes,”
and “Cain.” Again, a superficial reading of these words leads to the
conclusion that the speaker is offering a statement of gratitude for having
been delivered from her previously spiritually dark life. One must look
closely at the pronouncement that “Remember, Christians, Negroes, black
as Cain,/ May be refin’d, and join th’ angelic train” and appreciate
Wheatley’s placement of her race on an even playing field with her
captors through the possibility that the black race’s shortcomings can be
just as completely forgiven as those of the white race and that the white
race is the one destroying its brothers as Cain did Abel.
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The poem’s two quatrains of heroic couplets serve the same artistic and
philosophical purpose as do the octave and sestet of a traditional sonnet.
The first section lays the foundation for the speaker’s argument, while the
second section presents the speaker’s conclusion or resolution. For
instance, in the first quatrain, the narrator tells, in a relatively positive
voice, of her removal from a world of darkness into one of light. The
second quatrain then provides a sounding board for the narrator’s more
complex conclusion, that blacks as well as whites, the enslaved as well as
the enslavers, have the same potential for salvation and becoming a
member of the “angelic train,” thus negating the egocentric attitude of
whites. This message is often misread by careless readers.
Themes and Meanings
In her meditation, Wheatley attempts to come to terms with artistic and
personal abstractions such as what art is and when fancy becomes
imagination. However, one of the most significant abstractions with which
she contends is where the African American slave fits into the grand
scheme of things. Much of her need to understand comes from the refusal
of many in the white reading community to take her seriously as an artist
because she was both black and a woman. In “To S. M.,” Wheatley
articulates the reality of blacks’ ability to create art in spite of the whites’
refusal to accept this “inferior” group of people as able to create anything
of significance or be anything more than second-class individuals at best.
The conflict between racial reality and perception is most vividly and
artistically presented in Wheatley’s “On Being Brought from Africa to
America” when she uses such poetic devices as irony, italics, and firstperson narration to express her unwillingness to be cast into a secondfiddle role. In order to magnify the discrepancy between the whites’
perception of blacks and the reality of the situation, Wheatley guardedly
speaks of the good the whites have done in bringing blacks into the
Christian world. It is not until the second half of the poem, however, that
Wheatley brings into play an understanding that runs counter to the
careless reader’s impressions. In the concluding four lines of the poem,
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Wheatley argues that blacks and whites are made from the same spiritual
cloth and that both can “be refin’d, and join th’ angelic train” of salvation.
In most meditations, poets move from the physical to the metaphysical or
to a philosophical or spiritual foundation for existence. This is what
Wheatley does in “On Being Brought from Africa to America.” First, she
shows how life is perceived by white enslavers and many of the enslaved.
Then she moves on to argue that in the final analysis both races have the
same potential and are one in their relationship with the same supreme
being who, as her subtext discloses, is color-blind when granting
salvation.
Rip Van Winkle
Rip Van Winkle’’ is framed with commentary from an unnamed writer.
Before the story itself begins, three paragraphs in brackets explain the
story's origin: The tale ‘‘was found among the papers of the late Diedrich
Knickerbocker,’’ a man who dedicated much of his life to studying and
recording the history of the Dutch inhabitants of upstate New York.
Knickerbocker's published history, the narrator claims, is known for its
‘‘scrupulous accuracy,'' and the tale of ''Rip Van Winkle,’’ therefore,
should be accepted as truth.
The tale itself opens with a description of the Kaatskill (now called
Catskill) Mountains, beautiful and mysterious, at the foot of which is the
village where the central character lives. The time is the late 1760s or the
early 1770s, while the area is still a colony of Great Britain under the rule
of King George III. Rip Van Winkle is a ‘‘simple, goodnatured fellow'' with
a faithful dog, a son, a daughter, and a domineering wife. Rip is a favorite
of the women and children of the village, and a popular member of the
crowd of men who gather outside the local tavern to argue about politics,
but he is not as welcome in his own family. As willing as he is to play with
the neighborhood children or to help his neighbors with chores, he is lazy
and unproductive at home. His farm, which is the family's source of food
and income, is falling to ruin. Rip has gradually sold off most of it piece by
piece, and what little land remains is rocky and infertile. Truth be told, he
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does not spend much time working on the farm, preferring to be out in
the village visiting or in the mountains hunting and fishing. In short, he is
"ready to attend to anybody's business but his own.’’ His wife never lets
him forget his responsibilities to the family, or the many ways he fails to
fulfill them.
One autumn day, Rip feels so oppressed by the haranguing of his wife
that he takes his gun and sets out with his dog, Wolf, to find some peace
and quiet. Late afternoon finds him sitting in a high spot in the
mountains, admiring the view of the Hudson River far below. Realizing
that night is approaching, that he will not be able to get home before
dark, and that he will face a scolding for coming home so late, he gets up
with a heavy heart to set out for home. Just as he begins to climb down,
he hears a voice calling his name.
The voice belongs to a stranger, a ‘‘short, square-built old fellow’’ dressed
in old-fashioned Dutch clothing and carrying a keg of liquor up the rocks
of a dry stream bed. Without speaking, he indicates that Rip should help
him carry his burden up the mountain and into a hollow. There Rip sees a
group of bearded men playing ninepins, a form of bowling, in the same
oldfashioned Dutch clothing. Although they are playing the game, they do
not speak or smile; the only sound is the thunderous rolling of the balls.
Rip understands by their gestures that he is to serve the men the liquor
from the keg. He does so, and when the men are not looking he also
steals a few sips for himself. Gradually, the drink overtakes him and he
falls asleep.
When Rip awakens, he is back in the spot where he was sitting when he
first saw the stranger. It is a sunny morning and he worries that his wife
will be angry with him for spending the entire night away from home.
Reaching for his gun, which he has always taken good care of, he finds
instead a rusty old gun. Surely, he thinks, the strangers have drugged
him, and stolen his gun. His dog, Wolf, is also missing. Determined to
confront the men, he gets up and tries to locate the hollow but he can
find no trace of it. In fact, the dry stream bed is now filled with rushing
water. With nothing else to do, he heads for home.
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Arriving in the village, Rip sees other strange things. He does not
recognize any of the villagers he passes and they do not seem to
recognize him. There are buildings he has never seen before and
everyone is dressed in a new style of clothing. Stroking his chin, Rip
discovers that his beard has grown a foot long while he slept. When he
finally reaches his own house, he sees that it has fallen to ruin. And at the
village inn, where he has spent so many hours, the picture of King George
III of England has been replaced by an image of General Washington.
As Rip wanders through the town looking confused, a crowd gathers
around him. As he asks for his old friends, he learns that they have died,
or gone away. Finally, he meets a kindly young woman who has the same
name as his daughter. She tells him that her father, Rip Van Winkle, went
into the mountains and disappeared twenty years before. Rip tells his
story of the strange men and the keg, and an old villager remembers the
historical"fact'' that the explorer Hendrick Hudson haunts the mountains
and appears every twenty years. Rip's daughter takes him home to live
with her. His wife has died and he is now free to spend as much time as
he likes sitting at the inn, telling and retelling his story, without fear of
scolding.
The tale ends with a narrator returning to center stage, vouching again
for the accuracy of the story. One might think, he says, that the story
seems oddly similar to old German folk tales, but a note from Diedrich
Knickerbocker, which he quotes, proves the story's authenticity. In a
postscript, the narrator shares some scraps from Knickerbocker's
notebook, describing Indian legends about the Catskill Mountains. These
traditional stories reinforce the idea that the mountains ''have always
been a region full of fable.’’
| Historical Context
Becoming a Nation
Washington Irving was born in 1783, the year that the American
Revolution was formally ended by the Treaty of Paris. His parents had
been born in England but Irving was among the first generation of people
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to know from birth that they were not British subjects, but Americans.
The nation was still new, and in many ways unformed. It was not yet
clear what the Revolution meant and how the new country would be
different from the old colonies. Irving wrestled with this question in ‘‘Rip
Van Winkle,’’ by having his characters hotly debate political change on
election day.
Before the turn of the century, men and women of society wore elaborate
powdered wigs and fussy clothing reminiscent of that seen in the French
court. Now the common man was the ideal, and the idea that the nation
would be ruled by a wealthy aristocratic class was giving way to a more
egalitarian sense of rule ‘‘by the people,’’ or rule by all of the white men,
regardless of social class. Two political parties, Federalist and DemocraticRepublican, were formed in 1792, and scenes like the one Rip finds when
he returns to his village, of a ‘‘crowd of folk’’ arguing and ready to riot on
election day, became common throughout the land. The transition to
egalitarian rule was a bumpy one. Issues like the ‘‘rights of citizens,’’
including property rights, were hot topics, and debate was often
characterized by ignorance and anger.
One question that was little addressed when ‘‘Rip Van Winkle’’ was
published in 1819 was the matter of where the Native Americans should
live. Native Americans had been routinely removed from their lands as
the new nation pushed westward, and in 1830 an act of Congress
established the Oklahoma Indian Territory, to which thousands were
forcibly moved. The proper role for Native Americans in the new America
became increasingly a subject for debate. In 1848, Irving added a
‘‘postscript’’ to the end of ‘‘Rip Van Winkle,’’ after the ‘‘Note.’’ The added
section, which is omitted from many editions of the story today, describes
several Native American traditional stories about ghosts and spirits in the
Catskill region, a reinforcement of the sense of ancient mystery that
Irving tried to capture in the story.
The New American Literature
‘‘Rip Van Winkle’’ was created during a period when America demanded a
new type of literature to represent its vision of itself. At the end of the
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eighteenth century, the writing coming out of the colonies and the new
nation tended toward schoolbooks and sermons and historical essays,
developing ideas that had come out of Europe. There was little to
distinguish American writing from British. A small collection of plays—
most of them bad, and none of them still performed—had featured
American characters, but readers who wanted fiction had to import novels
from England. Now the new nation wanted to look forward, to create
American ideas and American models for future generations to look to.
One of the most striking things about The Sketch Book of Geoffrey
Crayon, Gent. for readers today is how European it is. Most of the thirty
or so sketches and stories are about English characters in English
settings. Some of the plots, including the plot of ‘‘Rip Van Winkle,’’ are
borrowed from German folk tales. But readers of The Sketch Book of
Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. in the 1820s marveled at two things: a few of the
stories, including ‘‘The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,’’ were set in the United
States; and the writing itself was stronger and more interesting than
anything else available at the time. The stories set in America were filled
with romantic descriptions of beautiful and powerful American landscapes,
and celebrated the desire to escape from society and return to the
wilderness that soon became a characteristic American theme.
Irving became a model for writers on both sides of the Atlantic for the
next fifty years. One group of satirists in New York during the first half of
the nineteenth century called themselves the ‘‘Knickerbocker Group’’ in
tribute to Irving. They are almost forgotten today, but Irving’s humor and
his writing style also influenced generations of major writers including
Edgar Allan Poe, Herman Melville, and Mark Twain. But in trying to use
European material and transplant it to American settings, Irving had no
models himself.
| Themes
American Revolution
Rip Van Winkle journeys into the mountains and falls asleep during the
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time when ‘‘the country was yet a province of Great Britain.’’ The local inn
where Rip spends much of his time has a sign outside with a portrait of
‘‘His Majesty George the Third,’’ who ruled Great Britain from 1760 to his
death in 1820. Other than the portrait, there is no indication in the early
part of the story that Rip and his friends are aware of politics, or
concerned about it in any way. Various critics have used clues in the story
and their knowledge of history to place the beginning anywhere from
1769 to 1774. Although in other parts of the colonies taxpayers are
already angry by this time about taxation without representation and
other affronts, the men of this village talk endlessly about nothing.
When Rip returns, sometime between 1789 and 1794, significant changes
have occurred. The American Revolution has come and gone, the former
colonies are an independent nation, and George Washington is the first
president of the United States. What changes have independence made in
a small village? It is larger, of course, with more people, and the new
people do not know Rip. Beyond these superficial changes, Rip notices
something else: ‘‘The very character of the people seemed changed.’’
There is still a crowd gathered around the local inn, but now their
conversation carries ‘‘a busy, bustling, disputatious tone about it, instead
of the accustomed phlegm and drowsy tranquillity.’’ One man stands
among from the crowd ‘‘haranguing vehemently’’ about politics. In this
new independent world, it appears, men must take notice of politics, if
not by serving in the new government then by being informed and
carrying on debate. Some of Rip’s old cronies from the inn have answered
the call: one was lost in battle during the war, and another became a
general and then a congressman.
On the other hand, much is unchanged. Rip is initially startled to see that
his beloved inn has a different, shabbier appearance and a new owner.
But outside, over the bench, is the same sign that used to bear the
portrait of King George. Rip notices that the face on the portrait is the
same, although ‘‘the red coat was changed for one of blue and buff, a
sword was held in the hand instead of a sceptre, the head was decorated
with a cocked hat,’’ and the sign now reads ‘‘General Washington.’’ With
the exception of one tense moment when he declares his loyalty to the
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King, Rip soon returns to his old life, no different than he lived it the day
he went up the mountain. He resumes his spot in front of the tavern and
establishes himself as one of the new crowd. Gradually he learns to
understand their political talk, but he prefers to tell stories of the old
times ‘‘before the war.’’ Indeed, although he is no longer a subject but a
free man, ‘‘the changes of states and empires made but little impression
on him.’’
Critics have argued over Irving’s point since the story first appeared, and
in his own lifetime Irving faced charges that he was unpatriotic because
he lived abroad for so long. Is he implying in ‘‘Rip Van Winkle’’ that the
difference between King George and General Washington is simply a
matter of the same face in different clothing? Is he using Rip’s lack of
interest in independence to further develop his laziness and indifference?
Is he calling for more involvement in politics, or less? Like all good
literature, this story raises more questions than it answers, but several of
the questions clearly have to do with the significance of the American
Revolution.
Marital Conflict
If Rip’s life has not been much changed by the American Revolution and
the coming of independence, it is greatly changed by waking up to find
that his wife has died. From his point of view (and from the view of the
narrator), his life before he falls asleep is one of constant torment at the
hands of an unreasonable wife. He is a ‘‘simple good-natured man,’’ an
‘‘obedient hen-pecked husband’’ who has learned ‘‘the virtues of patience
and long-suffering’’ through the constant scolding of his wife. She, on the
other hand, is one of those ‘‘shrews at home’’ who creates a ‘‘fiery
furnace of domestic tribulation.’’
This is the version of the Van Winkle marriage that the story presents,
but it is not difficult to peer behind the curtain of irony in the narrator’s
voice and see things in another light. The fact is, although she has
become an incurable nag, Dame Van Winkle has reason to be angry. If
Rip is always willing to ‘‘assist a neighbor even in the roughest toil,’’
including ‘‘building stone-fences,’’ why are his own fences ‘‘continually
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falling to pieces?’’ If he has found time to be the man who played with the
neighborhood children, ‘‘made their playthings, taught them to fly kites
and shoot marbles, and told them long stories,’’ why are his own children
‘‘as ragged and wild as if they belonged to nobody?’’ It is true that
‘‘everything he said or did was sure to produce a torrent of household
eloquence’’ from Dame Van Winkle, but it is hard to see what Rip might
be doing to earn praise from her.
Rip has a moment, upon first returning to his decaying house after his
long sleep, when he is appreciative of his wife’s contributions. He
acknowledges to himself that she had always kept the house ‘‘in neat
order,’’ and that without her presence the house seems ‘‘empty, forlorn.’’
But the moment passes quickly and when he finally learns that she has
died (bursting a blood vessel while yelling at a peddler) he experiences
the news as ‘‘a drop of comfort.’’ Settling in with his daughter’s family, he
is relieved to be out from ‘‘the yoke of matrimony.’’ The reader is left to
wonder how relieved Dame Van Winkle was on the day she realized that
something had happened to her husband up in the mountains and he was
not coming back.
Frame Structure
Although the part of the story that carries the plot is relatively
straightforward and chronological, this main section of ‘‘Rip Van Winkle’’
is preceded and followed by other material that does not directly advance
the plot. This kind of structure is sometimes called a frame structure,
because the beginning and ending material can be said to frame the main
section. ‘‘Rip Van Winkle’’ has two pieces of writing before the actual tale
begins (a quotation in verse, and a note explaining where the story came
from) and in most editions one piece afterward (a note from the narrator
attesting to the truth of the story, and quoting a letter from
Knickerbocker affirming that the story is ‘‘beyond the possibility of
doubt’’). A postscript containing bits of lore from the Native Americans
who inhabited the Catskill region was added by Irving in 1848, but most
modern editions of the story do not include this section.
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With the frame, Irving emphasizes the truth of the tale and at the same
time distances himself from accountability for that truth. In other words,
he protests too much. He does not expect the reader to take the tale
seriously, and every time he insists on its accuracy he puts that accuracy
further into doubt.
The only one who knows what Rip saw on that mountain is Rip himself.
He has told the story frequently, but he is not the narrator of ‘‘Rip Van
Winkle.’’ In the note at the end of the story, Knickerbocker claims to have
heard the story from Rip’s own mouth and Knickerbocker gives it his ‘‘full
belief.’’ But it is not Knickerbocker, either, who tells the story, but a
different narrator. Readers of the entire The Sketch Book of Geoffrey
Crayon, Gent. know that the narrator is Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. (for
‘‘gentleman’’), the purported author of the book. Crayon claims to have
found the manuscript of ‘‘Rip Van Winkle’’ among papers left behind by
Knickerbocker after his death, and Crayon appears to revere
Knickerbocker for his ‘‘unquestionable authority.’’ The frame creates,
then, several layers of doubt. Crayon, of questionable judgment, has the
story from the unreliable Knickerbocker (if he is telling the truth about the
manuscript), who has it from Rip, who in the beginning used to ‘‘vary on
some points every time he told it.’’ To read the story and ignore the
frame is to miss Irving’s insistence that the story is fiction.
Mock-Heroic
A frequent device used by comic writers is the mock-heroic, or the
borrowing of elements from epic literature and using them to tell a trivial
or ridiculous tale. The quotation that opens ‘‘Rip Van Winkle,’’ from the
playwright William Cartwright, is an example of the mock-heroic. It is a
simple passage, an unnamed speaker swearing by the god Woden to be
always truthful. True epics, which the mock-heroic imitates, often begin
with an invocation, or an application to a deity to guide the writing to
follow. The quotation from Cartwright, which has nothing to do with the
story and has apparently been supplied by the narrator himself, reinforces
the claim of truthfulness, and uses dramatic language to make the claim
seem more solemn. This is Irving’s method throughout the frame: he
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keeps a solemn face while he claims to be telling the truth, but gives
away just enough to demonstrate that he is not.
Typically, the epic begins with the hero being forced to leave his home
and setting off into the wilderness where he meets new and threatening
people and engages in battles or contests with them. Rip is forced from
his home by his wife’s temper, and when he sets off into the woods with
his gun he soon meets the group of strangely-dressed men bowling. The
structure is the same at its core, but the individual elements in ‘‘Rip Van
Winkle’’ are silly, presented in a serious tone.
Romanticism
Romanticism is a literary movement that swept through Europe and then
the United States in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It affected
literature and the other arts, as well as philosophy and politics, and it can
be described as a breaking away from formal, classical structures and
embracing imagination and spirit over intellect. In literature, several
characteristics came to typify romanticism, and many of these are found
in ‘‘Rip Van Winkle.’’
A central theme of romantic literature is a reverence for nature. The fact
that Rip leaves the city and ventures forth into the rugged mountains,
where he undergoes a life-changing experience, is a common romantic
plot element. When Rip is especially troubled by the stresses of civilized,
city life (that is, by his wife), he has no choice but to ‘‘stroll away into the
woods.’’ In the story, nature is described with as much attention to
imagination as to accurate detail: the ‘‘fairy mountains’’ surrounding Rip’s
village reach a ‘‘noble height’’ with their ‘‘magical hues and shapes.’’ The
opening in the cliffs opens and closes with ‘‘no traces.’’ The druginduced
sleep, the mysterious strangers, and the idea that they might be ghosts
from the past, are also found frequently in romantic literature.
Critics often describe the romantic period in American literature as
beginning around 1830, ten years after the publication of ‘‘Rip Van
Winkle,’’ but romanticism flourished in Great Britain from about 1798. An
avid reader and traveler, Irving was adept at borrowing from the
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literatures of other cultures and transporting themes and techniques to
his new American literature.