VISUALIZING
Ralph
Prepared By:
Hofmann, Durham
College
Chapter 6:
Learning
Media Enhanced PowerPoint  Presentation
Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd
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Lecture Overview
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Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Cognitive-Social Learning
The Biology of Learning
Conditioning and Learning in Everyday
Life
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C l a s s i c a l
C o n d i t i o n i n g
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Describe how a neutral stimulus can become
a conditioned stimulus by being paired with
an unconditioned stimulus.
Explain how stimulus generalization and
discrimination affect learning.
Describe the processes of extinction and
spontaneous recovery.
Identify an example of higher-order
conditioning.
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Pavlov’s Experiments
• Early work involved the role of saliva in
digestion
• Recognized that dogs acquired an
involuntary reflex (salivation) in response to
appropriate stimulus (food)
• This had to be a learned response
• Conducted several experiments based on
this premise
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Pavlov’s Original
Experiment
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Classical Conditioning
• Learning that occurs when a neutral
stimulus is paired/associated with an
unconditioned stimulus to elicit a
conditioned response
• Before conditioning occurs, the neutral
stimulus (NS) does not naturally elicit a
relevant or consistent response
• Most fundamental way that we learn many
new responses, emotions and attitudes
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Stimulus and Response
• Unconditioned
Stimulus (UCS)
– Elicits UCR without
previous conditioning
• Unconditioned
Response (UCR)
– Unlearned reaction to
UCS occurring without
prior conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
– Previously a NS that has been repeatedly
paired with a UCS, now cause a CR
• Conditioned Response (CR)
– Learned reaction to a CS
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Watson and Rayner
Experiment
• Demonstrated that fear could be classically
conditioned
• Paired loud noise with a white rat for an 11
month old subject (Little Albert)
• Criticized because they did not measure
fear objectively
• Could not be replicated today because of
ethical reasons
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Watson and Rayner
Experiment
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Conditioned Emotional
Response
• Classically conditioned emotional
responses to previously neutral stimuli
• Many of our likes, dislikes, prejudices and
fears fall into this category
• Watson’s work led to powerful clinical tools
for eliminating extreme irrational fears
known as phobias
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Fine-Tuning Classical
Conditioning
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Stimulus generalization
Stimulus discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Reconditioning
Higher-order conditioning
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Fine-Tuning Classical
Conditioning
• Stimulus generalization
– Stimulus similar to the original conditioned
stimulus triggers the same conditioned
response
– The more the stimulus resembles the
conditioned stimulus, the stronger the
conditioned response
• Stimulus discrimination
– Refers to a learned response to a specific
stimulus but not to other stimuli
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Fine-Tuning Classical
Conditioning
• Extinction
– Occurs when the unconditioned stimulus is repeated
withheld when the conditioned stimulus is presented
– Weakens previous association
– Not unlearned, connection can be re-established
• Spontaneous recovery
– Reappearance of a conditioned response after
extinction
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Fine-Tuning Classical
Conditioning
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
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Fine-Tuning Classical
Conditioning
• Reconditioning
– If a conditioned stimulus is reintroduced after
extinction, conditioning occurs much faster
the second time around
• Higher-Order Conditioning
– Neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned
stimulus through repeated pairings with a
previously conditioned stimulus
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Higher-Order
Conditioning
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O p e r a n t
C o n d i t i o n i n g
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Explain how reinforcement and punishment
influence behaviour.
Describe Thorndike’s and Skinner’s
contributions to research on operant
conditioning.
Identify examples of primary and secondary
reinforcers.
Explain how different schedules of
reinforcement affect behaviour.
Describe the negative side effects of
punishment.
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Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning
– Learning in which voluntary responses are
controlled by their consequences
• Reinforcement
– A consequence that strengthens a response,
making the response more likely to occur again
• Punishment
– A consequence that weakens a response,
making the response less likely to occur again
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Operant versus
Classical Conditioning
• Operant conditioning
– Consequences are at the heart
– Response is generally active and voluntary
• Classical conditioning
– Consequences are irrelevant
– Response is generally passive and involuntary
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Edward Thorndike
(1874-1949)
• Pioneer or operant conditioning
• Developed law of effect
– The probability of an action being repeated is
strengthened when followed by a pleasant or
satisfying consequence
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B.F. Skinner
(1904-1990)
• Extended Thorndike’s law of effect to more
complex behaviours
• Emphasized that reinforcement and
punishment always occur after the
behaviour of interest has occurred
• The only way to know how behaviour is
influenced is whether it increases or
decreases
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The Skinner Box
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Reinforcement
• Primary reinforcers
– Satisfy an intrinsic unlearned biological need
(food, water, sex, etc.)
• Secondary reinforcers
– Not intrinsic, the value of these reinforcers are
learned (money, praise, attention)
DAJ/Getty
Images
Age
Fotostock/
Superstock
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Reinforcement
Blend Images/Superstock
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Reinforcement
• Positive reinforcement
• Adding or presenting a stimulus which
strengthens a response and makes it more
likely to recur (e.g. praise)
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Reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
– Taking away or removing a stimulus which
strengthens a response and makes it more
likely to recur e.g. taking aspirin for a headache
– Opposite of punishment which weakens a
response
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Reinforcement versus
Punishment
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Premack Principle
• Named after psychologist, David Premack
• Ties less desirable low frequency activities
to more desirable, high frequency
behaviour
• Making yourself study before going to the
movies
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Schedules of
Reinforcement
• Extinction eventually occurs when we remove
the reinforcer that follows the response
– How easily the response is extinguished depends
on the rate at which we reinforce the response
• Best circumstances for using reinforcement
depend on the desired outcome
• Determines schedule of reinforcement
– Rate or interval at which responses are reinforced
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Schedules of
Reinforcement
• Most important distinction is whether a
schedule is continuous or partial
• Learning is most rapid when reinforcement
is continuous
• Once a behaviour is learned, the
reinforcement schedule may move to
partial
• Partial schedules tend to be more resistant
to extinction
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Partial Schedules of
Reinforcement
• Fixed ratio (FR)
– Reinforcement occurs after a predetermined
set of responses
– The ratio is fixed
– Leads to highest overall response rate
• Variable ratio (VR)
– Reinforcement occurs unpredictably
– The ratio varies
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Partial Schedules of
Reinforcement
• Fixed Interval (FI)
– Reinforcement occurs after a predetermined
time period of time has elapsed
– The interval time is fixed
• Variable Interval (VI)
– Reinforcement occurs unpredictably
– The interval time varies
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Partial Schedules of
Reinforcement
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Partial Schedules of
Reinforcement
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Punishment: Weakening
a Response
• Not always intentional
• To be effective, punishment should be
immediate
– Not always possible in the real world
• Recipient may learn what not to do but may
not learn what to do
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Punishment: Weakening
a Response
• Positive punishment
– Adding a stimulus that weakens a response,
making it less likely to recur e.g. shouting
• Negative punishment
– Removing a stimulus that weakens a response,
making it less likely to recur e.g. restriction
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Shaping
• The reinforcement of
successively closer and
closer approximations
to the desired response
• Works best for new and
complex behaviours
that are not likely to
occur naturally
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Side Effects of
Punishment
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Increased aggression
Passive aggressiveness
Avoidance behaviour
Modelling
Temporary suppression
Learned helplessness
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C o g n i t i v e S o c i a l
L e a r n i n g
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Explain how insight and latent learning
differ from the principles of classical
and operant conditioning.
2. Summarize the evidence that animals
(including humans) form internal
cognitive maps.
3. Identify Bandura’s necessary conditions
for observational learning.
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Cognitive-Social
Learning
• A perspective that emphasizes the role of
thinking and social learning in behaviour
• Incorporates the general principles of
conditioning but emphasizes the
interpretation or thinking that occurs within
the organism
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Insight Learning
• Early behaviourists likened the mind to a
“black box”
• Kohler and others
– Believed that there was more to learning to
solve a complex problem than trial and error
• Insight learning
– Sudden understanding of a problem that
implies a solution
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Wolfgang Kohler
• Gave chimps a complex
task
• Needed to use stick to
reach banana
• Chimp seemed to sit
and think
• Flash of insight
appeared to cause it to
pick up the stick
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Edward Tolman
(1898-1956)
• Experimented with rats in a maze
– Operant conditioning increased learning
– Rats without reinforcement were still able to
learn to navigate the maze
• Latent learning
– Hidden learning that exists without
behavioural signs
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Observational Learning
• The learning of new behaviour or
information by watching and imitating
others
• Also known as social learning or modelling
• Important to our biological, psychological
and social survival
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Albert Bandura
• Children watched adults kick punch and
shout at an inflated bobo doll
• Later, children who had seen the aggressive
adults, were much more aggressive
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Reinforcement versus
Punishment
• Bobo doll studies found that characteristics
of the adult model influenced the
behaviour of children
• Vicarious reinforcement
– If the model was rewarded for the behaviour,
the child was more likely to imitate it
• Vicarious punishment
– If the model was reprimanded or punished, the
child was less likely to imitate the behaviour
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Factors in
Observational Learning
• Attention
– Learning requires attention
• Retention
– Need to carefully remember
• Reproduction
– Motivation and skills to imitate the model
• Reinforcement
– More likely to repeat a modelled behaviour if it
is reinforced
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Factors in
Observational Learning
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T h e B i o l o g y
o f L e a r n i n g
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Explain how an animal’s
environment can affect learning
and behaviour.
2. Identify an example of biological
preparedness.
3. Describe how instinctive drift
constrains learning.
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Neuroscience and
Learning
• Research shows that experience changes
brain structure
– Based on studies comparing animals raised in
enriched versus deprived environments
• Also suggests that the human brain also
responds to environmental conditions
– Learning leads to new synaptic connections
and alterations in structure
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Mirror Neurons and
Imitation
• Neurons responsible for empathy and
imitation
• Help us identify with what others are
feeling
– “share the pain”
• Also fire when we watch another person
perform
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Infant Imitation
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Evolution and Learning
• Humans and other animals are born with
various innate reflexes and instincts
– Tend to be inflexible
• Only through learning are we able to react
to environmental cues
– Learning is an adaptation
• Certain biological constraints limit the
generality of conditioning principles
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Evolution and Learning
• Biological preparedness
– Innate readiness to form associations between
certain stimuli and responses
– Taste aversion, phobias, etc
• Instinctive drift
– Tendency of some conditioned responses to
shift back toward innate response pattern
– Natural behaviours take precedence
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Taste Aversion
• Garcia taught coyotes
not to eat sheep
• Injected killed sheep
with chemicals causing
nausea and vomiting
• Coyotes would run
away at the sight or
smell of the sheep
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C o n d i t i o n i n g
a n d
L e a r n i n g
i n
E v e r y d a y
L i f e
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Explain how classical conditioning
applies to prejudice, marketing,
medical treatments, and phobias.
2. Explain the role of operant conditioning
in prejudice, biofeedback, and
superstition.
3. Describe how cognitive-social learning
applies to prejudice and to media
influences on behaviour.
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Classical Conditioning
• Prejudice
– Clark and Clark (1939) showed that if given a
choice, children preferred white dolls to black
ones
– Reasoned that children had learned to
associate negative qualities to darker skin
• Marketing
– Primary tool for marketing and advertising
professionals
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Marketing Tools
• Example of classical
conditioning
• Repeated viewings of
logos etc associated
with a pleasant image
• Companies hope that it
will become a
conditioned stimulus
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Classical Conditioning
• Medical treatments
– For alcoholic patients, some hospitals pair the
smell and taste of alcohol with a nausea
producing drug
– Later, just the smell or taste of alcohol will
produce the nauseas
• Phobias
– Most explained by classical conditioning
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Phobias
• Classically conditioned
responses explain most
fears and phobias
• Extreme fears can be
treated with behaviour
therapy
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Operant Conditioning
• Prejudice can be learned through operant
conditioning
– Demeaning an bullying may get attention from
others and be reinforced
– A single negative experience with a member of
a group may be generalized to the entire group
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Operant Conditioning
• Biofeedback
• Feedback is added that increases the
likelihood that the behaviour will be
repeated
– Biofeedback acts as the secondary reinforcer
– Learned value of relief from pain or other
aversive stimuli remains the primary reinforcer
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Operant Conditioning
• Superstition
• Even accidental reinforcement can exert a
powerful effect
• Skinner experiment with pigeons
– Feeding mechanism released food every 15
seconds
– Birds associated behaviour at the time with the
feedback
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Prejudice and
Discrimination
• Consider the
reinforcement that
these boys received for
teasing this little girl
• Consider the
implications for future
behaviour
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Biofeedback
• Internal processes are
electronically recorded
and fed back to the
patient
• Successfully used to
treat a variety of
conditions
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Superstition
• We believe in many
superstitions that may
have developed from
accidental
reinforcement
• Not shaving during the
Stanley Cup playoffs
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Cognitive-Social
Theory
• Prejudice
– Can be learned through observing others
– May also be propagated through the media by
portraying women and minorities in
demeaning or stereotypical roles
• Media influences
– May also be teaching destructive behaviours
through observational learning
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Media and Aggression
• Evidence links observing
violent behaviour to
desensitization and
performing future
violent behaviour
• Video games may be
more likely because
they are interactive and
require the player to
identify with the
behaviour
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Conditioning and
Learning in Everyday
Life
• Cognitive-Social Theory
can be seen in:
– Prejudice
– Media Influences
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Multimedia
Web Links
Index of Learning Theories and Models
Theories and Models of Learning for Educational
Research and Practice.
Learning Theories
When we talk of learning we usually think of
something related to the classroom, such as English
or Maths. However, Psychologists refer to learning as
a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a
result of experience'. Learning is a fundamental
process in all animals and the higher up the
evolutionary scale the animal, the more important is
the ability to learn. All animals need to adapt their
behaviour in order to fit in with the environment and
to adapt to changing circumstances in order to
survive.
How Dog Training Works
Although dogs have helped people with specific jobs
for millennia, today most resemble family members
more than employees. According to the American
Pet Products Manufacturers Association, in 2005,
American pet owners spent an estimated 39.5 billion
dollars on their pets, more than twice what they
spent in 1994.
PyschLab
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Dog
Conditioned reflexes are reflexes you can learn
compared to unconditioned reflexes that are built-in,
or natural.
Ivan Pavlov
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born on September 14,
1849 at Ryazan, where his father, Peter Dmitrievich
Pavlov, was a village priest. He was educated first at
the church school in Ryazan and then at the
theological seminary there.
Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd
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Multimedia
Web Links
An Animal Trainer’s Introduction to Operant and
Classical Conditioning
This page attempts to explain Operant Conditioning,
and promote the use of Positive Reinforcement and
Negative Punishment in animal training.
Classics in the History of Psychology
Conditioned Emotional Reactions
Positive Reinforcement: A Self-Instructional Exercise
The purpose of this exercise is to teach the concept
of positive reinforcement and also to provide an idea
of the kind of self-instructional exercises used in
many Athabasca University course packages. Some
technical notes about this lesson are available. A
page of frequently asked questions about positive
reinforcement is also available.
An Animal Trainer’s Introduction to Operant and
Classical Conditioning Part Two
Positive Reinforcement
PsychLab
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
One night, you went out for a late stroll down a dark
lane. Bad move! That mysterious light turned out to
be a flying saucer. The aliens apparently wanted to
conduct a little biological research, and you got
elected. No consent forms, not even a debriefing
sheet! Where is the Galactic Institutional Review
Board when you need them?
Animal Training at Sea World
Based on a long-term commitment to education,
SeaWorld strive to provide an enthusiastic,
imaginative, and intellectually stimulating
atmosphere to help students and guests develop a
lifelong appreciation, understanding, and
stewardship for our environment. Specifically, the
goals are...
Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd
74
Multimedia
Web Links
Get Started with Clicker Training
So, you got a clicker, and you’re ready to try out a
new and exciting way of training your dog. These tips
will help you get started on your own.
Edward C. Tolman
Edward Chance Tolman was an American
psychologist who made significant contributions to
the studies of learning and motivation. Considered a
cognitive behaviorist today, he developed his own
behaviorism when the likes of Watson were
dominating the field (Kimble et al, 1991). Tolman was
born in Newton, Massachusetts in 1886. He
remained there as he grew up and was educated in
the Newton Public Schools. He lived in a family of
"upper middle" socioeconomic status and had a
father who was the president of a manufacturing
company. His brother, Richard, was five years older
than he was and both he and Richard were expected
to go into the family business.
Learning by Observation
Creatures that can learn by observation have an
important advantage over those who can’t: The hard
lessons learned by one individual can be readily
copied by others. Infants can learn what foods to eat,
what foods to avoid, what animals are dangerous
predators, what animals are prey, and so on. By
learning from the experience of others, animals
avoid many of experiences’ most dear lessons.
Mirror Neurons
Why do sports fans feel so emotionally invested in
the game, reacting almost as if they were part of the
game themselves? According to provocative
discoveries in brain imaging, inside our heads we
constantly "act out" and imitate whatever activity
we're observing. As this video reveals, our so-called
"mirror neurons" help us understand the actions of
others and prime us to imitate what we see.
Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd
75
Multimedia
Web Links
Wiring the Brain
Interested in continuing education? Here's some
good news. As this ScienCentral News video reports,
brain researchers have uncovered one mechanism
that controls how our brains make new connections.
Advertisements and Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning and Advertising...what do they
have to do with each other? Well, classical
conditioning is seen as, in marketing, a valid way to
promote products. However, there is little research
on whether preferences for certain things can be
classically conditioned. The way that advertisers try
to use classical conditioning is to pair their product
with other positive stimuli, such as sex, pleasant
music, humour, and attractive colours. These positive
stimuli can be used in any number of combinations
or on their own. Here are some advertisements that
show the variations of positive stimuli from
throughout the years.
Media Smarts
Canada’s Centre for digital and media literacy
Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd
76
Multimedia
Videos
Learning from Babies (1:40)
Scientific researchers who use human subjects in
their work rely on their ability to speak or write to
find out what they want to know. But as this
Sciencentral News video reports, researchers who
learn from babies don’t have that luxury.
Vitamin A and Learning (1:49)
They say you are what you eat. But can your food
make you learn better?
Halloween Spiders (1:37)
Do spiders make you squeamish? As this ScienCentral
News video reports, you may be thrilled—and
chilled—to learn about new evidence that they can
learn, and remember.
Learning to Forget (0:54)
Many Americans are still searching for ways to
escape the anxiety caused by September 11th.
Drive Brain Power (1:40)
Three years ago a study showed parts of the brain
controlling learning and memory were bigger in
London cab drivers' brains, to help store detailed
mental maps of the city. Does it really take big brains
to be a cab driver?
Teen Steroids (1:13)
With federal indictments handed out over the
weekend in an illegal steroid distribution scheme,
professional sports is under scrutiny. Eager to
emulate their favorite athletes, as many as 1 in 18
teens may have tried steroids. But at what cost? This
ScienCentral News video takes a closer look.
Imitating the Opening of Friction Can Lids(1:47)
Video clip Copyright ©1952 by Keith Hayes
Imitating the Use of a Hammer (0:49)
Video clip Copyright ©1952 by Keith Hayes
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77
Multimedia
Videos
Wiring the Brain (1:20)
Interested in continuing education? Here's some
good news. As this ScienCentral News video reports,
brain researchers have uncovered one mechanism
that controls how our brains make new connections.
Alcohol and Ads (1:43)
The National Academies’ National Research Council
released a much-anticipated report on Tuesday,
September 9, 2003, on combating underage drinking.
One recommendation, reducing young peoples'
exposure to alcohol advertising. As this ScienCentral
News video reports, neuroscientists have studied
alcohol ads' appeal to underage drinkers.
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78
Multimedia
Animations
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a fundamentals that animals
including humans learn new responses.
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79
Copyright
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