Structure of Language
• phonemes: basic speech sounds
• morphemes: smallest unit of language that
contains meaning
• surface structure: the words and phrases
comprising a particular sentence
• deep structure: the underlying meaning of a
sentence
Rules of Language
• grammar: a system of rules that enable us
to speak and understand
• semantics: rules we use to derive meaning
from morphemes
• syntax: rules we use to order words into
sentences
Mental Imagery
• An image is a mental representation of a
sensory experience.
• We use imagery as an aid in conceptualizing
and solving problems.
• Images allow us to use concrete forms to
represent complex and abstract ideas.
Concepts
• concept: A mental category for classifying
objects, people, or experiences.
• prototype: A mental model containing the
most typical features of a concept.
• idealized cognitive model: Our conceptions
of events as we expect to typically find
them.
Problem Solving
problem representation: interpreting or
defining the problem
 select a solution strategy that best suits the
problem

Possible Solution Strategies
• trial and error
• information retrieval: recovery of
information from LTM is all that is
necessary
• algorithm: systematical evaluation of all
possible solutions to a problem
• heuristics: rules of thumb strategies for
problem solving
Heuristics
• hill climbing: each step moves
progressively toward the final goal
• subgoals: creation of intermediate and
more manageable goals
• means-end analysis: reducing discrepancy
between current and desired states
Heuristics
• working backwards: moving from the
desired state to the current state
• availability: basing our judgments on the
availability of information in our memories
• representativeness: judging the likelihood
of things in terms of how well they seem to
represent particular prototypes
Obstacles to Problem Solving
• an individual’s level of motivation
• set: The tendency to perceive and to
approach problems in certain ways.
• functional fixedness: The tendency to
perceive only a limited number of uses for
an object.
Obstacles to Problem Solving
• confirmation bias: The tendency to look for
evidence in support of a belief and to ignore
evidence that would disprove a belief.
Improving Problem Solving Ability
• tacit of elimination: Possible solutions are
evaluated according to appropriate criteria
and discarded as they fail to provide a
solution.
• visualization: Concepts are drawn,
diagrammed, or charted so that they can be
better understood.