1.
2.
5 th pd you many sit wherever you want. 7 th see seating chart on front board
Get out your notebooks
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• Number pages 1-50 ( back and front)
Page 1- name page ( name, pd, room, Ms. Price)
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Page 2- Title page- ch.1 and prologue
Page 3- Syllabus
Page 4- Prologue Notes
Page 5-Foldable
Page 6 – Brain Teasers ( you will get them today)
Page 7- chapter 1 notes
Page 8- Correlation act ( will get today)
Page 9- practice test
3 . With a partner see how many brain teaser you can get correct in 15 minuets

 A man is found shot to death in a room with a table, four chairs, and
53 bicycles. Why was he murdered?
 There are 52 Bicycle playing cards in a normal deck. He was playing with an extra ace.

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 A man is traveling from work and wants to go home. He will not go home because there is another man in a mask waiting there for him. What does the first man do for a living?
 The man is a runner at third base and he is trying to score a run

Let’s Make A Deal!
 One Volunteer is
Needed for A chance to win
1,334,499
Turkish
“dollars!”

Let’s Make A Deal Shows Us That:
 Human Intuition is highly limited .
 Critically thinking rarely comes easily to us!
 Critical Thinking: thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions
 examines assumptions
 discerns hidden values
 evaluates evidence
 An awareness to our own vulnerability

 Hindsight Bias: tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it .
 the “ I-knew-it-all-along ” phenomenon


Overconfidence: we tend to think we know more than we do.
 We can't always trust our common sense or intuition we need research

 Theory
 an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
 Low self esteem contributes to depression
 Hypothesis
 a testable prediction
 often implied by a theory
 Allows us to test and reject or revise the theory
 People with low self esteem score higher on a depression scale

generate or refine research and observations theories lead to lead to hypothesis

 Operational Definition
 a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables
 You want to be clear enough so that the test and observations can be replicated
 To give the study more credibility it is usually done with different subjects in different situations
 Make sure studies are valid and reliable

 1. Descriptive - making observations that describe behavior
 2. Correlational - detecting relationships that help predict behavior
 3. Experimental-doing studies that help explain behavior

 Case Study
 an observation technique in which one person , or a small group, is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
 Longitudinal-
 Cross Sectional-
 Drawbacks of case study: individuals can be atypical and lead to false findings.
 Anecdotal Stories

 Survey
 technique for ascertaining the selfreported attitudes or behaviors of people
 usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

 Population: all the individuals you are interested in knowing something about.
 Sample: the individuals you actually question.
 Sampling should always be taken randomly from the population so that it is representative, meaning each individual in the population had an equal chance of being selected.

1.) Improper Sampling
2.) Question Wording Can Effect the results of a survey.
Ex: Should cigarette ads or pornography be allowed on television?
Ex. Mississippi River- Is the Mississippi River longer or shorter than 500 miles? How long is the Mississippi River?
Is the Mississippi River longer or shorter than
3000 miles? How long is the Mississippi River?

 False Consensus Effect: tendency to o verestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.
 Overgeneralizing extreme examples can lead you to false conclusions!

 Naturalistic Observation: observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
 Drawbacks: hard to identify any type of causation since there is no controls.

 Correlation Research: research that looks at a relationship between two things . How well does one factor predict the other?
 Ex: Consumption of Ice Cream and
Drowning.

 Positive Correlation: a relationship in which increases in one variable leads to i ncreases in the other.
 Ex: Amount of fat burned is positively correlated with amount of sit-ups completed
 Negative Correlation: a relationship in which increases in one variable leads to decreases in the other.
 Ex: As tooth brushing goes up, tooth decay goes down

 Married people tend to have higher measures of happiness.
 Children who watch high amounts of television are more aggressive.
 People with low self-esteem are more likely to be depressed.
What meanings can we make of these examples?

 Correlation Coefficient: the statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well either factor predicts the other. ( number that measures strength of the correlation ).
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STRONGEST CORRELATIONS are +1 and
–1. +1 is a perfect positive correlation while
–1 is a perfect negative correlation.
Correlations are always between –1 and +1.
A correlation of Zero means there is no relationship .

Perfect positive correlation (+1.00)
No relationship (0.00) Perfect negative correlation (-1.00)

Correlation coefficient
Indicates direction of relationship
(positive or negative) r = +.37
Indicates strength of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)

 R=+.37
 R=-1.00
 R=+.17
 R= -.08

 Scatterplot
 a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
 the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship
 the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
 little scatter indicates high correlation
 also called a scattergram or scatter diagram

1. Get out your notes from last class and your homework

Temperament scores
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
75
70
65
60
95
90
85
80
Height in inches

Subject
7
8
5
6
3
4
1
2
9
10
Height and Temperament of 20 Men
Height in
Inches
80
63
61
79
74
69
62
75
77
60
Temperament
60
42
42
60
75
66
60
90
81
39
Subject
15
16
17
18
11
12
13
14
19
20
Height in
Inches
64
76
71
66
73
70
63
71
68
70
Temperament
63
75
30
57
48
69
72
57
84
39

 Correlation does not prove causation
 Ex- negative correlation between self-esteem and depression
 Heredity and brain chemistry might play a role
 Among men, length of marriage correlates positively with hair loss- because both are associated with a third factor.
 Age
 Correlation indicates the possibility of a cause and effect relationship, but DOES
NOT prove causation

 Illusory Correlation: the perception of a relationship where none exists.
 Sugar makes kids more hyperactive
 Wet hair and cold hair cause a cold
 Don’t overgeneralize extreme cases
GET THE DATA!!

You need to make sure your study is reliable and valid.
1.
Reliability -if your study was replicated would you get the same results?
2.
Validity - Does the study or experiment test what it is designed to test.

Summing Up Surveys, Naturalistic
Observation, Case Studies, and
Correlation Research
 All of these methods look to describe the behavior not to explain it!
 Experimental Designed research is the only research that gets at causation…NEXT TIME!

 Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same:
1 in 2,598,960.

 For the following research methods list one positive and one negative
 1. Corelational Study
 2. Case Study
 3. Naturalistic Study
 4. Survey
 5. Experiment

 Experiments are the best way to isolate cause and effect
 the investigator manipulates one or more factors ( independent variables ) to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process ( the dependent variable ) while controlling other relevant factors by random assignment of subjects
 by random assignment of participants the experiment controls other relevant factors.
 Breast Milk Example

Research Strategies
 Double-blind Procedure
 both the subject and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the subject has received the treatment or a placebo
 commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
 Placebo
 an inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent
 Placebo Effectthe effect of positive thought and willpower on an experiment

Research Strategies
 Experimental Condition
 The group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable ( real drug)
 Control Condition
 The group that contrasts with the experimental treatment . Get the placebo, or possible nothing
 serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
 Example- Viagra

Research Strategies

 assigning subjects to experimental and control conditions by chance
 minimizes pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups
 Want similar age, attitudes …….

Research Strategies
 Independent Variable
 the experimental factor that is manipulated
 the variable whose effect is being studied
 Dependent Variable
 the experimental factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
 in psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process

 It can vary depending on what happens during the experiment
Cause/effect…… If/Then

 Confounding Variables-
 Variables that cause changes in the
DV besides the IV
 Breast Feeding Example
 Operational Definitions
 Example Viagra
 IV- Viagra or placebo- time, amount
 DV- Sex………………………..

Problems-
 Sometimes not feasible or ethical
 1. Obtain consent
 2. Protect from harm
 3. Confidential
 4. Fully explain research after the exp.
 Animals?
 Results may not overgeneralize to other contexts

 Researchers first need to organize their data
 Pie Chart, Bar graph
 Descriptive Statisticsdescribe the data , but don’t focus or the relationship

Percentage still functioning after 10 years
100%
99
98
97
96
95
Our Brand Brand Brand
Brand X Y Z
Brand of truck

Percentage still functioning after 10 years
100%
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Our Brand Brand Brand
Brand X Y Z
Brand of truck


3 measures of Central Tendency - Mode
, Mean and Median
 Mode - the most frequently occurring score
 Meanaverage
 Median - the middle score, when you arrange the score in order from the highest to lowest
 Be Careful- can a few extreme score through off any one of the central tendencies?
 What's wrong with- income for 62% is below average

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Mode Median
One Family
90 475
70
Mean
Income per family in thousands of dollars
710

 Need to know the variation in the data, how diverse or similar the scores are
 Range – the gap between the highest and lowest score
 Remember extremes scores can skew the data
 475,000 and 710,000

 Find the mean, median, mode and range
1, 4, 14, 10, 4, 9, 5, 16, 2,
7, 4, 11, 13, 9

 The more useful measure is
Standard Deviation
 It gauges if scores are packed together or dispersed
 Uses info from each score
 Smaller Standard Deviation for more similar populations
 Higher Standard Deviation for more diverse populations

 Standard deviation is the square root of variance

 1. Representative samples are better than biased samples
 2. Less variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable
 Consistency
 3. More Cases Are better than few

 statistical significance (p) is a measure of the likelihood that the difference between groups results from a real difference between the 2 groups rather than from chance
 If statistically significant …..the differences are probably not due to chance
 Statistical significance indicates the likelihood that a result will happen by chance. It does not indicate the importance of the result
 The lower the P value, the less likely the results are due to chance (P<.o1)

Ethics