The New
Nation
1781-1789
THE NEW NATION
Theme 1
The American Revolution was
not a radical transformation like the
French or Russian revolutions, but it
did produce political innovations
and some social change in the
direction of greater equality and
democracy.
The New Nation
Social Changes due to the Revolution
1781-89 critical period as US establishes itself
as a sovereign nation
Exodus of 80,000 loyalists
significantly decreased
conservative influence
in America
Slavery in the North
Rise of anti-slavery societies- Abolitionsim
Slavery abolished in most northern states during or
after the Revolution (PA 1st ) – through “Gradual
abolition” (wait for current generation to die out- no
new slaves)
Northwest Ordinance, 1787 Prohibited slavery in
Ohio territories
International Slave trade abolished in 1808 (part of
Constitution)
250,000 free blacks lived in the North. Still faced
severe discrimination: couldn’t vote, attend most
schools, practice certain careers
Still built communities Boston, Philadelphia most
vibrant
Thousands of southern slaves were freed after
the Revolution
However, Slavery remained strong in the
South
Emphasis on Equality
Dislike of hereditary
honors/Fraternities, like the Cincinnati
Society- too much like Euro Nobility
Most states reduced property
requirements for voting gone by
1820s
End to primogeniture and
entail (all goes to 1 heir) by 1800
Separation of church & state
Virginia Statute for Religious
Freedom (1786) Defined religious
freedom in state constitution (TJ)
Anglican church “dis- established
replaced by the Episcopal Church
Congregational churches in New
England were slower to disestablish
Equality for women
Incomplete.
“Republican Motherhood”: women
were now seen as moral equals
of men and were expected to raise
virtuous children for the republic
Femme covert: denied women
property rights if married, everything
belonged to Husband
State governments
Generally Three branches: strong legislatures,
weak governors, and a judicial branch
States were sovereign nations; republics
(meaning NOT democracies, people could
vote, but gov’t in control)
Most states had a bill of rights
Gordon Wood, The Radicalism of the
American Revolution, 1992
• Said what made American Revolution a radical
movement in world history was that it made “the
pursuit of happiness” one of the main functions
of government.
• Destroyed ideas of aristocracy, made
egalitarianism possible (therefore later
movements for rights for women/blacks etc..)
• Brought about dominance of the “ordinary”
citizen (Middle Class) and popular politics.
• All this would have to wait in Euro until after the
IR
Constitution making in the states
Congress in 1776 asked colonies to draft
new
constitutions specifically defining -- Sovereignty
based on republicanism
Features of State Constitutions
1. Most included a bill of rights- protect property
2. Annual election of officials
3. Weak executive & judicial branches (leftover
distrust of Royal features)
4. Legislatures powerful and democratic
5. Poorer western districts much better
represented than before war
Economy in the 1780s
US suffered a severe economic depression in
fledgling years of 1780s
Large national and state debts leftover from
Revolution from excessive use of consumer
credit
Lack of sound currency (still short hard specie)
created runaway inflation leading to massive
Foreclosures on farms
Britain flooded the U.S. with
cheap goods
Manufacturing had been helped by nonimportation agreements
Americans now lost markets in the
British empire (which was still
under Nav. Laws
U.S. pursued new economic markets (e.g.
Baltic, Asia)
Didn’t understand Congress did not have
the ability to control commerce
-- States refused to adopt a
uniform tariff policy.
Foreign Policy Challenges
Britain
Refused to make a commercial treaty or repeal
its Navigation Laws after war therefore U.S.
was cut off from the West Indian trade
Britain remained on the
frontier and helped Amerindians
attack frontier settlements
Upset b/c US did not protect
Loyalists, and was not
paying back debts
British and
Spanish
threats on
the
American
Frontier
Fort Michilmackinac
(U.S. soil)
Fort Niagara
(U.S. soil)
Detroit (U.S. soil)
St. Louis
Natchez
New Orleans
Spain
Closed mouth of the Mississippi River (New
Orleans) in 1784 (hard on western farmers)
Claimed large area north of the Gulf of Mexico
(including NW Florida)
Conspired with Amerindians to prevent GA and SC
from expanding westward
Encouraged creation of an independent state in the
southwestern U.S. which some westerners
supported if it meant attacks would stop
Jay-Gardoqui Treaty (1786)
-Proposed; not passed- would have given Spain
greater trading rights in Northwest- while opening
territory for peaceful settlement.
British and
Spanish
threats on
the
American
Frontier
Fort Michilmackinac
(U.S. soil)
Fort Niagara
(U.S. soil)
Detroit (U.S. soil)
St. Louis
Natchez
New Orleans
France/Mediterranean
France (in big financial trouble) demanded repayment
of money loaned during the war. Restricted U.S.
trade with West Indies & other ports until repaid.
North African Pirates
America's Mediterranean
commerce being ravaged
Dey of Algiers did most damage
U.S. no longer had British
protection- couldn’t afford to pay
tributes demanded
U.S. Captain
Bainbridge and the Dey
of Algiers
Articles of Confederation
Created by Second Continental Congress,
which was weak. National government
designed to be a Consultative body (except
military & foreign policy) with no
constitutional authority; states
were sovereign
Articles of Confederation ratified in1781
Adopted in 1777 to gain French aid
in war
Western lands were the main problem. Seven
states had enormous land claims (e.g. New
York and Virginia) Six states had no
territory beyond the Allegheny Mountains
-- Complained it was unfair their war effort
had helped the large states keep landsArgued large states had advantage- could sell
lands to raise revenues, others would have to
tax
Unanimous approval was required to ratify the
Articles -- Maryland held out until NY & VA
gave up their western lands.
Congress pledged to create new territories
from western lands- which would be equal
to all other states
Western Land Cessions
Provisions of Articles of Confederation
Each state, regardless of size, had one vote-Disproportionate power for smaller states
No executive branch existed to enforce laws
Judicial branch was left to the individual states
Amendments adopted only by unanimous vote
Bills required 2/3 vote
Congress could not regulate commerce between
states, collect taxes, or force states to contribute to
gov’t needs.
Congress could only ask states for troops
Weak and Ineffective
That was Intentional: individual states had
more power
Crippling limitations:
1. No power to regulate commerce-- Led to
conflicting laws between states
2. Could not enforce tax collection. -- Gov't
received only 25% of its requests
National Government could not act directly
upon individuals from states.
Articles were vulnerable to revolutionary
challenges
Newburgh “Conspiracy,” 1783
-- Army officers were unhappy- they were paid
irregularly, and due to inflation, when they
WERE paid, it was almost worthless.
Developed a Plot to overthrow the
government
-- Washington convinced the
conspirators to
abandon the plot
PA soldiers marched on Congress demanding back
pay. Congress was forced to flee Philadelphia
until1787!
Nassau Hall, Princeton University. After Congress was chased out of Philadelphia
in 1783, it moved the government to Princeton, New Jersey
Despite its weaknesses, the Articles was a significant
stepping stone towards the present Constitution
Landmark Land Laws
Land Ordinance of 1785 Land in the Old
Northwest (Ohio territory) would be sold to
pay national debt.
Split land into townships six miles square; each
split into 36 sections of one square mile
-- 16th section set aside for
public schools
Contrasted with land south of Ohio River:
which had chaotic development
Land
Ordinance
of 1785
Land
Ordinance
of 1785
Northwest Ordinance of 1787
Old Northwest regions would begin as
subordinate territories
But Could become a state when it
had 60,000 inhabitants and would then
have Equal status with other states
-- Significance: by granting equality
to states, it ensured peace between
east & west.
Forbade slavery in the territories- gave North
an advantage slave vs free states
Northwest Territory
Fall of the Articles of Confederation
Problems continually plaguing gov’t
Requisition system of raising money from the
states was breaking down.
Interest on the public debt was growing
Several states quarreled over boundaries; some
minor battles.
Some states levying duties on goods from
neighbors.
Some states printing depreciated paper
currency
Shays’ Rebellion (1786)
Perhaps most important rebellion in American History. In
Western Mass backcountry farmers (rev. war vets) were
being foreclosed/sent to debtor’s prison. Led by Capt.
Daniel Shays, they demanded cheap paper currency,
lower taxes, and suspension of foreclosures
In Springfield, during Shays' Rebellion, a mob seeks
to prevent the holding of the Courts of Justice.
Captain Daniel Shays
Jan. 1787, Shays & 1,200 others marched, their mob
closed courthouses to prevent further foreclosures. Then
marched to Springfield (state supreme court) to take
arsenal where the scuffled with militia -- Result: 4 dead; the
rest scattered
Significance: Propertied class feared the
masses (mobocracy) cried out for a
stronger central gov't. Became eager to
scrap the Articles of Confederation Most
people agreed the Articles at least
needed strengthening
Annapolis Convention (1786)
-- 1st step- Failure (only 5 states showed up)
Principle purpose: Settle the issue of interstate
commerce
Alexander Hamilton gained commitment for a new
convention the following year to overhaul
Articles of Confederation
Congress reluctantly agreed when
6 states appointed representatives
-- Some in Congress saw this as
its death warrant.
Theme 2:
The federal Constitution
represented a moderately
conservative reaction against the
democratic and centralizing effects
of the Revolution and the Articles
of Confederation.
The Constitutional Convention
(May 25 - Sept. 17, 1787)
55 delegates convened (all states sent delegates
except Rhode Island) George Washington
elected chairman
Present: Franklin, Hamilton, Madison, J.
Adams (fairly conservative,strong
nationalists)
Absent: Patrick Henry, Sam Adams, RH Lee
(revolutionaries, strong states’ rights
advocates)
Sessions held in secret- b/c they were actually
staging another revolution and overthrowing
the government!
The Constitutional Convention
James Madison:
“Father of Constitution.” He believed that:
• National government (which reps all)
should be stronger than the states
• Separation of powers between branches
of government would prevent the
consolidation of power
• a large republic would limit the
influence of various factions
• Title “father” diminishes
contributions of others like
Charles Pickney, James
Wilson, and Roger Sherman
Representation
The issue of representation in Congress was the
biggest of the Convention.
Two major plans were debated
1. Virginia Plan ("Large-State Plan") Bicameral
legislature. Representation in both houses based
on population (Large states would have a political
advantage)
2. New Jersey Plan ("Small-State Plan"). Equal
representation in aunicameral Congress by states
regardless of size and population. (like Articlessmall states would have numeric advantage, their
pop get “more” representation)
Impasse threatened to break up the convention.
The "Great Compromise"
(Connecticut Compromise) Roger Sherman.
Bicameral legislature with:
Representation by population in House of
Representatives
Equal representation in the Senate
Every tax bill would originate in the House
since big states would have to bear a larger
tax burden
The President
Strong, independent executive branch
. Reversed system most state constitutions
had embodied- but it was clear
Washington would be 1st president, and
everyone trusted him.
Presidential powers:
a. Military commander in chief
b. Power to make appointments
c. Veto over legislation
Electoral College
rather than a direct vote to elect president
Conservatives did not trust leaving
choice to the people, Democrats wanted
direct vote to empower the people
Compromise: states voted for electors who
would vote for the president
North-South issues
Slavery was the biggest issue- South wanted
slaves to count for rep, but not taxes.
North wanted slaves to count for taxes, not
rep. South was afraid it’s smaller (white)
population would lead to northern
dominance.
Three-Fifths Compromise: Slaves = 3/5 of a
person for representation/taxation
Equality sacrificed for union- many believed
slavery would die out on its own (seemed
headed that direction- until cotton gin)
Slave trade
Agreed to end in 1808 (most states had
already outlawed). SC and GA protested;
rice demanded many slaves
Commerce Compromise tied to slaveryagreed to tax imports but not exports
Irony- south gave up power to the north b/c
they expected to grow west faster than north
would. North thought slavery dying.
North/South tensions a foreshadowing of
what will continue until 1860
Separation of Powers/ Checks & Balances
Advocated by Baron de Montesquieu:
Spirit of the Laws, 1762 (though his idea
was to sep based on class, not function)
Three branches of gov't: separation of powers
a. Executive: enforce laws
b. Legislative: create laws
c. Judicial: interpret laws
The “Elastic Clause”
“Congress shall have the power to make all
laws ‘Necessary and proper’ to the forgoeing
powers”
Nationalists sought greater power for
the federal gov’t- this gave them flexibility to
deal with new issues as they arose.
The “Supremacy Clause” Constitution
defines federal (not state) government as
supreme with right to regulate commerce
and interstate relations
Conservative safeguards
Purpose: check the excesses of the "mob"
Universal fear among delegates of pure
manhood suffrage) only got to choose
members of One section (House of Reps)
Federal judges appointed for life
President elected indirectly by Electoral
College
Senators chosen indirectly by state legislatures
“We The People”
Why no Bill of Rights?
Southern states didn’t like to spend time
talking about all men born free and equaland slavery was already in constitution.
Most states already had bills of rights- Madison
etc… thought another would be redundant
Most important- there were already so many
fragile compromises holding Const.
together- they were afraid to tackle one
more batch!
Ratification
In Constitution it says that when 9 states ratify- this
becomes law (afraid of need for unanimity in
Articles Congress) Many shocked- had no idea this
was going on
States held special elections/ratifying conventions. 4
states (DE, NJ, GA, CT) ratified quickly. PA 1st
large state to ratify.
Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists- those who supported
Constitution (and therefore strong national
government) and those who did not (or wanted
strong state government) SEE HANDOUT
Federalist &
Anti-Federalist
Strongholds
Massachusetts was the critical test (they’re the loud
ones when unhappy) Main issue: Lack of Bill of
Rights. Federalists promised one by
Congressional amendment
Mass. Ratification brought MD, SC and NH on
board for the needed 9
Constitution officially adopted June 21, 1788
Last four states: ratified because they had to- or leave
the union- yet the 2 largest richest states (VA and
NY) had not ratified- awkward….
GW John Marshall, and James Madison did serious
campaigning- promised a complete Bill of Rights
New York
Alexander Hamilton led the Federalist cause
Federalist Papers: Hamilton, Madison, John Jay.
Influential series of articles for NY newspapers.
Written as Propaganda, anonymously. Most
famous- Federalist X by Madison
In the end- NY ratified b/c they could not stand
alone
North Carolina & Rhode Island
-- Ratified after new gov't was in effect for several
months- shows their individualist temperaments
“ARTICLES”
A rticles of Confederation (structure)
R atification Debate, 1787-88
T reaty of Paris, 1783
I nternational threats (Eng, Fr, Spain, Dey)
C onstitutional Convention, 1787
L and Legislation (1785 and NW Ord 1787)
E conomic depression (interstate commerce)
S hays’ Rebellion, 1787