Children’s Thinking
Lecture 2
First Things First
Children’s Thinking: The Essentials
• What is the nature of children's
thinking?
• What mental capacities or processes
underlie children's thinking?
• How and why does children's thinking
change? How does the infant's mind
become the adult's?
How can we tell what children are
thinking?
• Thinking must be inferred from observed
behavior.
• So how do we observe behavior?
• Stories from first lecture are examples of
informal observations – what is wrong (or
incomplete) about these?
• Historically, systematic observation was
adopted from the practices of naturalists.
– In fact, Charles Darwin is often credited with
being the first to attempt to keep formal baby
biographies.
A Fish Story
[Louis] Agassiz would ask the student when he would like to begin. If the
answer was now, the student was immediately presented with a dead fish
-- usually a very long dead, pickled, evil-smelling specimen -- personally
selected by "the master" from one of the wide-mouthed jars that lined
his shelves. The fish was placed before the student in a tin pan. He was to
look at the fish, the student was told, whereupon Agassiz would leave, not
to return until later in the day, if at all.
Samuel Scudder, one of the many from the school who would go on to do
important work of their own (his in entomology), described the experience
as one of life's turning points.
In ten minutes I had seen all that could be seen in that fish.... Half
an hour passed -- an hour -- another hour; the fish began to look
loathsome. I turned it over and around; looked it in the face -ghastly; from behind, beneath, above, sideways, at three-quarters
view -- just as ghastly. I was in despair. I might not use a
magnifying glass; instruments of all kinds were interdicted. My two
hands, my two eyes, and the fish: it seemed a most limited field. I
pushed my finger down its throat to feel how sharp the teeth were.
I began to count the scales in different rows, until I was convinced
that that was nonsense. At last a happy thought struck me -- I
would draw the fish, and now with surprise I began to discover new
features in the creature.
When Agassiz returned later and listened to Scudder
recount what he had observed, his only comment was
that the young man must look again.
I was piqued; I was mortified. Still more of that wretched fish!
But now I set myself to my task with a will, and discovered one
new thing after another.... The afternoon passed quickly; and
when, toward its close, the professor inquired: "Do you see it
yet?"
"No," I replied, "I am certain I do not, but I see how little I saw
before."
The day following, having thought of the fish through
most of the night, Scudder had a brainstorm. The
fish, he announced to Agassiz, had symmetrical sides
with paired organs. "Of course, of course!" Agassiz
said, obviously pleased. Scudder asked what he might
do next, and Agassiz replied, "Oh, look at your fish!"
Here’s your fish
Another fish
Fish #3
Some possible conclusions
• Cephalocaudal (“head-to-tail”)
development
• Proximo-distal (central to peripheral)
development
• Early behavior poorly differentiated
• Early behavior poorly integrated
What is the aim of observation?
• G. Stanley Hall, 1st American Psychology PhD,
founder of American Psychological Association, set
the tone:
• Goal of developmental observations should be to
establish norms.
• Though Hall’s theoretical emphases are obsolete,
developmental psychology retains a normative emphasis:
• Abnormal or disordered development must be understood
in terms of normal development.
• Arnold Gesell responsible for most widely known
developmental norms
• Used new technology of file to improve observations
• Growth norms in 1920s
• Behavioral norms in 1940s
Gesell Norms
• Today, mostly used by pediatricians
• Four categories evaluated at specific
ages:
–
–
–
–
Gross motor
Fine motor
Social/emotional behavior
Language
Important Milestones
• By the End of 3 months
– Motor• raises head/chest, supports
upper body when on stomach
• Opens and shuts hands
• Pushes down on legs when on
firm surface
• Brings hand to mouth
– Social/Emotional• Develops social smile (1 month)
• Enjoys being with others
• Imitates facial expressions
– Language
(Vision/Hearing/Speech)•
•
•
•
Watches faces intently
Follows objects
Babbles
Turns head in direction of
sound
•
Red Flags
– Not responding to loud
noises
– Cannot support head by 3
months
– No smile by 3 months
– Crosses eyes most of time
– Loss of prior milestones
Important Milestones
•
By the End of 7 months
– Motor-
• Rolls both ways
• Sits with, & then without,
support
• Transfers hand to hand
• Rakes objects
– Social/Emotional-
• Social play
• Interested in mirror/other
babies
• Explores with hand and
mouth
– Language
(Vision/Hearing/Speech)• Responds to name
• Responds to “no”
sometimes
• Babbles in chains
• Develops color vision
• Can track objects well
•
Red Flags
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Seems stiff/tight muscles
Seems floppy/ ragdoll-like
Refuses to cuddle
Doesn’t respond to sounds
One eye turning in/out
consistently
No rolling by 5 months
Can’t tripod by 6
months/can’t sit alone by 78 months
No babbling by 7 months
Loss of prior milestones
Important Milestones
•
By the End of 12 months
– Language
(Vision/Hearing/Speech)-
– Gross Motor•
•
•
•
•
• Responds to “no”
• Responds to simple
requests
• Says “dada” “mama”
• exclamations
• Begins to Imitate words
Sits alone well
Creeps/crawls
Pulls to stand
Walks holding on
Stands for second with
support
– Fine Motor
• Uses pincer grasp
• Bangs objects
together/may stack 2
blocks
• Tries to scribble
– Social/Emotional-
• Shy with strangers
• Preferences emerge (in
foods/toys)
• Looks at correct pictures
• Finger-feeds
• Imitates actions (brush
hair, dial phone, etc.)
•
Red Flags
– Not able to sit alone
easily
– Drags body while crawling
– Can’t stand with support
– Does not search for hidden
objects
– Says no words
– Doesn’t use gestures
– No pointing to objects
– Loss of prior milestones
Important Milestones
• By the End of 24 months
– Language
(Vision/Hearing/Speech)-
– Gross Motor•
•
•
•
•
•
• Points to object when it is
named
• Says single words by 15-18
months
• Uses simple phrases by 24
months
• Follows simple instructions
• Repeats words
Walks alone
Can carry toys while walking
Begins to run
Kicks a ball
Climbs onto furniture alone
Walks up stairs with support
– Fine Motor-
• Scribbles
• Builds tower of 4 blocks
• Begins to have hand
preference
– Social/Emotional-
• Starts independence/defiant
behavior
• Imitates behaviors
• Make-believe play
• Finds hidden objects easily
•
Red Flags
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Can’t walk by 18 months
Doesn’t speak at least 15 words
Doesn’t use 2 word sentences by
age 2
By 15 months, doesn’t know
function of common household
objects (brush, spoon,
telephone)
Doesn’t follow simple
instructions
Can’t push a wheeled toy by age
2
Walks only on toes
Loss of milestones
Important Milestones
•
– Language
(Vision/Hearing/Speech)-
By the End of 5 years
– Gross Motor•
•
•
•
Hops, climbs, swings easily
Stands one foot >10sec
May skip
Early coordinated sports
•
•
•
•
•
•
Copies triangles
Draws 6-8 part person
Prints letters OK
Uses utensils well
Dresses without help
Fully toilet trained
• Correctly names at least 4
colors
• Can count to 10 or more
• Recalls parts of stories
• Concept of time improved
• Uses future tense
• Knows full name and address
• Speaks 5 word sentences (or
more)
– Fine Motor-
– Social/Emotional•
•
•
•
Can agree & follow rules
Likes to sing, dance, act
Aware of gender
Can distinguish fantasy &
reality better
• Very independent
•
Red Flags
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Acts very fearful, timid, or
aggressive
Easily distracted
Doesn’t play with other children
Rarely uses pretend play
Often unhappy, passive or aloof
Doesn’t know first and last name
Doesn’t use plurals or past tense
Can’t brush teeth, wash hands
Holds pencil uncomfortably
Loss of milestones
Children are all different!
A key observation: Infants are
born with a set of reflexes
Rooting
• When baby's cheek is stroked at the corner
of her mouth, her head will turn toward
finger and she will make sucking motions.
Grasp
• Pressing one of the baby’s palms causes
fingers to grasp.
Babinski
• Baby's foot is stroked from heel toward the
toes. The big toe lifts up, while the others
fan out.
Spinal reflex
Stepping
• Holding baby upright with feet touching a solid
surface and moving him forward elicits stepping
movements.
Babkin
• When both of baby's palms are pressed, her
eyes will close, mouth will open and her head
will turn to one side.
Reflexive Imitation?
Observation vs. Experimentation
• Our goal is to create causal theories
that explain how real children develop.
• Unfortunately, the two key components
of this goal are in logical conflict.
• To understand causality, we must be
able to test behavior under carefully
controlled (hence artificial) conditions.
• If we observe in more natural
conditions, we forfeit control.
Experimentally manipulating a
reflex: Optokinetic nystagmus
Visual Gratings
A simpler way
• Robert Fantz noted that:
– Infants look at things
– Infants look at some things more than others
• Fantz (1958) presented infants with two
things to look at:
Infants
prefer
this one.
1) Discrimination.
2) Preference for
complexity.
Observation vs. Experimentation,
redux
• Naturalistic observation allowed researchers
to establish norms for basic milestones of
physical & behavioral growth.
• BUT observation alone is very limited in
explanatory power – cannot probe behavior to
uncover its mental foundations.
• Experimentation (especially w/infants)
provides compelling vistas on children’s
thinking and has provided radically new views
on infants’ and children’s cognitive capacities
and functioning.