World War I and the Crisis of the
European Order
Introduction
• During WWI the great colonial empires of Europe made increasing
demands on their colonies which led to protests and nationalist
movements
• Example-Egypt and the British: British were surprised by the mass
Egyptian protests from 1919-1922. The British thought the Egyptians were
passive and they didn’t pick up on the signs of oncoming revolts!
• Egyptians were upset over many issues including: British confiscation of
Egyptians draft animals, rising prices of everything, outstretched food
supplies, increasing demands on female labor in factories, increased labor
demands in sweatshops and fields, meager wages, demands on Egyptian
men as bearers, animal tenders, and etc during the war.
• British focused heavily upon Egypt b/c of its proximity to Turkey and
Germany and of course the importance of the Suez Canal in connecting all
of the British empire for soldiers, laborers, raw materials, loans, and
donations.
• Egyptian women, especially from the lower classes were very active in
protests and were aggressively taking part in bombings and facing police
and armed forces.
-Shafika Muhammad (F) killed by British in an unarmed demonstrations
• It is important to understand that imperialism turned WWI into a global
war reaching far corners of the world and have long lasting effects
Coming War: Long March to War
• Germany had been working for economic supremacy before it even
became a unified state. Germany quickly became highly industrialized
which was reflected in its many RRs and supremacy over metals. As
you can imagine this worried many of its European neighbors.
Germany and Russia did have an alliance (Reinsurance Treaty) however
because of German’s support of Austria at the expense of Russia that
treaty lapsed and European peace was threatened. Russia turned to
France and Britain for alliances (idea was a two-front war if Germany
declared war on any of its neighbors).
• Additionally, France was just as worried as Russia. Its defeat in the
Franco-Prussian war of 1870 made it lose the territories of Alsace and
Lorraine and it looked as if the German’s were eyeing even more
French land! The British joined the Triple Entente over the threat of the
German growing navy and army!
• When Kaiser Wilhelm II of German came to power so also did another
alliance system-Triple Alliance known as the Central Powers: Germany,
Austria-Hungary, and Italy. Italy did have a major problem with Austria
because Austria still had some Italian lands under its control which
meant that Italy’s role in the alliance could change. In fact in 1915 Italy
switched sides and joined the Triple Entente!
Leading up to war
• The various powers in Europe had been a part of imperial building
and had competing rivalries. These tensions increased as fewer and
fewer lands were available for colonization.
• Nationalism (jingoism) also grew leading to hatred for others
• Morocco crisis-France annexed Morocco to its other N. African
colonies and Germany threatened war if the French advancement
continued…not supported by other powers. In 1911 Germany again
threatened and the French had to give Germany some lands in
central Africa to avoid conflict!
• The great powers wanted lands and also didn’t want to see anyone
else gain lands at their expense
• Great arms race-imperial powers race for arms, army, and navy!
Germany navy threatened the British navy’s supremacy
• Armies grew in size, firepower, and began to practice. With all this
technology and large standing well-equipped militaries politicians
felt confident in war and felt if one came it would be short.
• Additionally, many of these industrialized European powers had
many problems at home: labor strikes and protests. Conflict
between European states would be a very nice way to distract its
people from their social problems and provide employment.
Outbreak of War
• Russia wanted a warm water port and supported nationalist ambitions in the
Balkans against the Turks and Austria. Russia supported Serbs against Austria.
• A Serbian nationalist, Gavriel Princip, assassinated the Austro-Hungarian heir
to the throne, Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Sophie in 1914. The couple was
in Sarajevo, Bosnia (under Austrian control) for a speech. The Austrian
government was very angry and looked to make Serbs pay. Austria also looked
to Germany’s supported which it famously gave Austria a “blank check”. This
led to Austria giving Serbia an very harsh ultimatum which the Serbs couldn’t
totally give into (which Austria understood…they wanted war to end once and
for all Serbian challenges)
• Russia declared its supported for Serbia and the alliance systems were quickly
drawn into this small conflict!
• Inept diplomacy, tensions over decades, and the enviable sense of war led to
war
• Germany devised a plan in case of war since it knew it would be fighting a twofront war: Schlieffen Plan 1905-attack France first and then fight off the slower
Russia.
• British joined war to defend Belgium which was neutral and Germany attacked
to launch its attack in France.
• With these major powers came their colonies and even Japan’s support
(Canada, Austria, India, African nations, and even New Zealand all found
themselves part of the action)
Russia and France
• Russia’s main plan of
defense was to mobilize
troops prior to war-due
to the poor RR system
they would not be able
to mobilize troops as
quickly as Germany
• Began mobilizing troops
towards Germany
• French Plan XVII:
concentration of troops
in one specific area:
Lorraine and Alsace
• However, left Paris
exposed and the
heartland of France
exposed to a northern
attack
The Schlieffen Plan
• Germany should
concentrate on France,
swiftly attacking north
through neutral states
• After France was taken
over then they could
concentrate on the
Eastern front against
Russia
• A group of seven men,
including a teacher, all under
28 years sought to kill
Archduke Ferdinand
• Ferdinand was not personally
an oppressor to their people
and had tried to play the role
of friend. Serbs and Croats in
Austria’s southern provinces of
Bosnia and Herzegovina
actually lived well due to the
dual monarchy. The assassins
didn’t desire to bring an end to
the dual monarchy, but rather
to create a bigger and better
sun for Serbia.
• Wanted an independent
Serbian State
• Prewar Austria-Hungary was
run by two strong races the
Germans and Magyars.
There were Slav minorities
in both countries including
Czechs and Slovaks north
and Serbs and Croats south.
The Hapsburgs (feudal
German overlords) had
difficulties with the largest
bloc, the Hungarians. In
order to offset the power of
the Hungarians they favored
certain Slav subjects.
Ferdinand was a champion
of this policy.
• Because Ferdinand
married a northern Slav
he falsely thought that
he had extra respect
with southern Slavs.
People of Serbia view
Ferdinand as a threat
because he advocated
“trialism” or triple
reorganization of the
empire in place of the
existing “Dualism”
• Ferdinand thought that
by giving Serbs an equal
voice against the
Germans and Magyars
he could create a better
empire.
• Why would the Serbs
not like this plan???
• The Serbs had problems
with this plan because it
essentially doomed
Serbia from ever
become a great,
independent state. To
Serbian nationalists
Franz Ferdinand had
become the most
serious threat to a
Greater Serbia.
• Much of the plotting and
scheming for the
assassination took place
in Bosnia and
Herzegovina
• Bosnia and Herzegovina
(Serb and Croat) had been
controlled by Vienna
(Austria) since 1878, when
the Turks had been
expelled but remained
officially Turkish until 1908
when they were annexed
to the Dual Monarchy.
This action outraged many
Serbians. The southern
provinces became a
breeding ground for
subversion and antiHapsburg ideas.
• The assassins were not
what you would think
assassins should be, but
they did have one thing
• in common all were
suffering from
tuberculosis.
• Some of the assassins like
Mohammed
Mehmedbasic froze and
allowed the motorcade
with Ferdinand to pass.
Others like Nedjelko
Cabrinovic missed. The
mistake was a wrong turn
taken by the car onto
Francis Joseph Street
where the driver stopped.
This put Princip within
five feet of Ferdinand. He
fired two shots. One hit
Ferdinand in the neck and
the second struck Sophie
in the abdomen.
• Mehmedbasic threw a
bomb, but missed
Ferdinand. He did injury
others that were taken to
the hospital. He then took
his cyanide tablet and dove
into the river (the cyanide
tablet didn’t work and only
made him sick while the
river (Miljacka) was just a
few inches deep).
• Ferdinand upon arriving at
his speech destination was
angry and stated “one
comes here for a visit and
is received with bombs”
• The Mayor didn’t
understand him and they
continued with the speech
• After the speech
Ferdinand wired home
that they were both fine.
He decided he should
visit bomb victims. They
thought another attack
was unlikely.
• He didn’t want Sophie to
go, but she insisted. On
their way to the hospital
they took a wrong turn
onto Francis Joseph
Street and this is were
the attack occurred!
• Ferdinand’s dying words “Es
ist nichts” (it is nothing). This
was the couples 14th
anniversary
• Princip then turned his pistol
on himself, but the crowd
knocked it away. He then
turned to his cyanide capsule,
which only made him vomit.
Princip and Cabrinovic
remained alive.
• Emperor Francis Joseph
heard of the news of the
death of his nephew and
thought to himself how
careless Ferdinand had been
and felt the Hapsburgs had
gained something through
the elimination of Ferdinand
• “A higher power has restored
that order which
unfortunately I was unable to
maintain”
• Emperor Francis Joseph
had never approved of his
nephew’s choice in a wife.
Sophie was a noble but
from an obscure Czech
family. Emperor Francis
Joseph was so offended by
this choice of a mate
beneath his station that
the they argued over the
marriage for 1 year. When
the emperor consented,
Francis Ferdinand was
forced to renounce the
rights of succession and
rank for his children, taking
Sophie as a morganatic
wife.
• Initially many countries
were shocked, but not
provoked by the incident
• Sophie wasn’t permitted to ride in the royal
carriage with her husband due to her station
and was snubbed all over Vienna by the royals.
Ferdinand wanted Sophie to experience being
treated like a royal on their 14th wedding
anniversary so he took her to Sarajevo b/c in
that company she would be treated as such.
They rode together in the second car on the
parade route.
• Unfortunately for everyone the assassins
cyanide capsules didn’t work and they lived. “In
this way the pistol and poison failed both the
killer and the world” S.L.A. Marshall
• They killers could talk now! If they had died
there may not have been any case made
against Serbia
Assassination at Sarajevo
• On July 23, 1914 Austria
presented Serbia with
an ultimatum, which
was deliberately harsh
• End to anti-Austrian
activity and to allow
Austrians to conduct an
investigations in their
country
• Serbia agreed to most
demands, but offered
to have several others
settled by an
international
conference
• July 28 refused Serbia’s
offer and declared war
Assassination at Sarajevo
• Germany declared war on
Russia-Aug. 1 and FranceAug. 3
• July 28 (same day)
• France (mobilization) on
Russia also took action
July 30
and began mobilizing• Great Britain on Aug. 4
troops toward the
after Germany attacked
neutral states
Austrian border
• WW1 had now begun• Italy-outside of the
conflict
• Austria-Hungary and • Austrian-Serbian war
Russia pulled in their became a European wide
conflict within a month
allies
World War I
• Trenches ran from the
English Channel to Swiss
border
• Machine guns, poison
gas, and heavy artillery
made short work of
infantry
• Tanks, flame throwers,
poison gas, and barbed
wire
World War I
German Offensive
• Belgium asked Britain for
• Schlieffen Plan had been
dedicated to the principle
that France could be
swiftly eliminated
• First Battle of the Marne:
Sept. 6-10, 1914—Allies
were ready to attack
weakened German troops
• On Aug. 2 Germany
demanded free passage
for her troops via Belgium
(12 hrs). Germany had
secret information that
France was going to
invade. If Belgium didn’t
remain neutral and allow
passage, Germany would
see her as an enemy
•
•
•
•
•
help and appealed to King
George V. Grey repeated a
line from Gladstone “Could
this country stand by and
witness the direst crime that
ever stained the pages of
history and thus become
participators in the crime?”
Britain gave Germany an
ultimatum: halt the invasion
of Belgium or be at war with
Britain by midnight
By midnight on Aug. 4th the
British were at war
Counterattacks by British and
French forces halted the
German advance at the
Marne River
forced to drop back
Allies victorious-strategic
War on the Eastern Front
• Germany was now
forced to fight a twofront war: western
(France) and eastern
(Russia)
• Eastern front wasn’t
limited to trench warfare
due to large border
• Tannenberg Forest-1914:
Russians suffered huge
loss
Masurian Lakes-1914: last
great Russian campaignalmost took out the
Austria as a military
power
• Germany forced to draw 8
divisions out of Italy, 12
from the Western frontproviding relief for Verdun
and Somme
• Then the Germans under
Ludendorff assumed
power over the Austrian
military
• Enjoyed success along
southern front against
Austria until Germans
pushed them back
(Limanowa)
• Russians suffered
incredible losses (2
million)! Support for the
war and government
began to wane
World War I
War on the Eastern Front
• By 1916 Russia’s war
effort was near collapse
• Russia wasn’t
industrialized and as a
result they continually
had shortages on food,
guns, ammunition,
clothing, boots, and
blankets
• Moreover, the Allies
were unable to ship
supplies to Russian
ports because the
German fleet blocked
the Baltic Sea and in the
south the Ottomans
controlled the
Mediterranean and the
Black Sea
War on the Eastern Front
• Russian army had only
one asset: its numbers
• Throughout the war the
Russian army suffered
enormous battlefield
losses
• 2 million were killed,
wounded, or captured
in 1915 alone
• Yet the army continually
rebuilt its ranks from
the country’s enormous
population
• For more than 3 yrs
they diverted
Germany’s full out
assault in the west
War on the Eastern Front
• By March 1917 civil
• However, war-weary
unrest due to food and
Russian army refused to
fuel shortages brought
fight any longer
government to brink of • Nov. 1917- second
collapse
revolution: Communist
• Czar Nicholas, faced with
leader Vladimir Lenin
revolution, abdicated his
seized power-insisted
throne on March 15
upon ending Russia’s
involvement in the war
• Provisional government
was established-pledged • March 1918: truce:
to continue fighting war
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
(lost lands)
War on the Western Front
• Now, the German
military was free to
transfer most of the
eastern forces to the
western front
• 1916 Verdun: small
fortress in northeast
France-German’s
attacked. Wanted “to
bleed the French white
by virtue of our
superiority in guns”
• French held their
position ten
horrifying months
• There was no real
winners that
emerged from the
battle
• Causalities were
high-700,000 dead
War on the Western Front
• 1916 Somme: 7 mile
advance-were
successful, but at a total
cost of 1 million lives
• Champagne 1917:
French defeat
• Passchendaele
offensive 1917 very
limited success
• Realized “going over the
top” in offensives
wasn’t working
• Basically there was a
stalemate on the
western front…Allies
attempted to open up
new fronts
Ottoman Empire
• Feb. 1915: Allies
attacked Ottomans in
the area of the
Dardanelles-led to
capital Constantinople
• If they could take
Dardanelles they could
supply Russians
• Known as the Gallipoli
(Gaa-lip-O-lee) campaign
• By May turned into
another stalemate
• In Dec. Allies gave up
campaign and evacuated
• Despite Gallipoli, Allies
were still determined to
defeat the Ottomans
Ottomans/ Germans
• Allied armies took
Baghdad, Jerusalem,
and Damascus
• In Southwest Asia,
the British helped
Arab nationalists rise
up against their
Turkish rulers
• Asia and Africa:
German colonial
possessions came
under assault -Japan
• British recruited subjects
of German coloniesindependence
• Naval Battles: 1916
Jutland in the North Seano real winner
• Unrestricted submarine
warfare: proved to be
German's most effect
naval weapon-attacked
Allied and neutral ships
• 1915 sank Lusitania
(British passenger ship)
• 1917: sank 3 American
ships
War in Europe
• War really did turn into a stalemate on the Western Front. Germany
attacked Belgium which surprisingly fought back and slowed down
the giant. While the French fight violently to hold onto their nation
plus the British entered the picture to help push the German’s back!
The British arrived when the German troops were tired and not well
supplied b/c they were away from RRs.
• The Western Front developed a unique style: trench warfare-built
down in order to protect themselves against on another’s
technology (firepower, machine guns, artillery). This only further
compounded the stalemate.
• Western Front was turned into a killing grounds with millions of
men losing their lives for little more than a regional conflict in the
Balkans? (machine guns, artillery, barbed-wire, poison gas).
• Trenches provided some shelter from the hellish conditions of
industrialized war, but by no means was a picnic! The trenches were
filled with rats and lice. The rats would eat on the corpses of the
dead and the soldiers tried anything to keep them at bay.
• Older generals from another time period did not understand war in
the Industrial age and kept using tactics that were basically suicidal.
War in the East
• Russia surprised the Germans by launching offenses quicker than they thought.
This made the Germans reorganize and divert troops to the Eastern Front too.
The Germans virtually destroyed Russian armies and the Russians had
devastating losses to Germans (not Austrians though).
• Russian suffered highest level of casualties of any of the states involved
• Aristocratic generals led millions of unprepared/ un-supplied peasants to their
certain deaths! Tsar Nicholas II moved to the front itself to lead the war effort.
Russians angry before the war saw millions of the son of the peasant classes
dying needlessly. This provided even more ammunition for the Russian
protests and revolts.
• Austria-Hungarian forces proved more equal with Russia and Russia did defeat
them many times, but the Austrian would ask for help from Germany and they
would send troops and equipments which tipped the balance in favor of
Austria.
• Austria was quite successful against Italy though (Italy entered war in 1915).
Entered war on promised of land gains from the British. The Italians lost
offensive after offensive and had to be reinforced with French and British
troops from the Western Front to halt Austrian success (opposite of what was
supposed to happen). Many Italian troops deserted out of hopelessness. One
Italian soldier wounded at the front who would soon change Italian history and
be a key figure in WWII was Benito Mussolini.
The Home Fronts in Europe
• Soldiers grew angry at political leaders who urged them to continue
fighting the war and civilians who supported it and didn’t understand
the horrors and the true price of warfare.
• At home governments dealt with needs of the front through
rationing and the government also ran certain sectors like the RRs
(Total War)
• The governments also censored media and put down dissent
• Developed propaganda departments-so good that the Germans
didn’t even realize that they were on the course to losing and
thought their defeat was sudden due to gov. censorship!
• Angry people with the war-led to labor protest and in Russia the
Bolshevik Revolution in 1917!
• Women also participated heavily in war being nurses on the front to
producing much needed goods in factories. Women challenged
traditional gender roles during the war and afterwards demanded
more rights and liberties. However, when the men returned home
women lost their jobs and many times the government tried to force
them back to the home.
War Outside Europe
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Because colonies were used for raw materials of people and materials they soon
were drawn into the conflict. Fighting spread to the Middle East, Africa, and Asia.
1917 US entered the war-Triple Entente
British maintained a naval blockade over the Germans. They were superior at sea
and cut off the Central Powers from their colonies and their supplies! At the same
time because of the sheer empire of the British much of the world came into the
war.
1902 the British made a naval compact with Japan. Japan then attacked German
colonies in China and the Pacific…which allowed them to expand their imperialistic
goals and eventually led to their dominance over Asia in WWII!
British White Dominions quickly sent supplies (including men). These soldiers were
active in the Middle East and the famous Gallipoli Campaign (1915-Australian
forces), and the Western Front. Some colonial areas had been promised freedom
in return for their help during the war.
From tropical dependencies (non settler ) colonies many soldiers and supplies.
Germans lost many colonies, but in German East Africa they had a superbly led
African soldiers who fought the British 2 weeks after the end of fighting in Europe!
The Turks entered the war in 1915 on side of Germany. They fought in of course
the Gallipoli Campaign, Middle East, as well as Russia. They had severe losses to
Russia and turned blamed to the Christian Armenian minority (spanned both
empires). Some Armenians did back Russia b/c of earlier pogroms against them by
the Turks, but most was loyal or neutral. Turks lost because of poor planning but
blamed the Armenians and in 1915 launched an attack…the Armenian genocide
killed millions and caused many to leave to Middle East and Russia.
War Outside Europe
• US initially didn’t really care about entering the
war and most Americans felt it was a European
conflict. The US sold many industrialized and raw
materials to the Triple Entente (alliance) and
began giving loans too. They soon transitioned
from the debtor to creditor and WWI turned US
into an international powerhouse.
• Blunders of the Germans that brought US into the
war: unrestricted submarine warfare
(Zimmerman Note)
• US joined war in April of 1917
Endgame
• It did appear that the Germans were going to win the war. They had
defeated British armies and the French were in a retreat while
Russia pulled out of the war in a revolution! However, the war on
the Western Front once again turned into a stalemate with new
weapons and increasing American troops.
• Austria-Hungary broke down and fragmented along national lines –
separate republics of Austria and Hungary
• Germany agreed to a armistice November 11, 1918 and the public
was surprised by its “sudden” loss and many accepted the myth
that the country had been betrayed by socialists and Jewish
politicians –”stab-in-the-back theory”. Many soldiers and citizens
were horrified by the peace agreement and felt angry. Mixed in
with post-war economic conditions it was a breeding ground for
discontent and political change allowing disgruntled soldiers like
Adolf Hitler and the Nazis to gain power.
• 10 million died, 20 million wounded (society not quite prepared
for), billions of dollars of economic loss, destruction of cities,
transportation routes, and farmlands led to even more economic
losses PLUS an influenza pandemic (killed about another 50 million
people worldwide).
Victory 1918
• Nov. 9, 1918 Kaiser
Wilhelm II (G) was
forced to step down
• Germany declared itself
a republic and a
representative from the
new German
government met with
Allies
• Signed an armistice or
agreement to stop
fighting
• Nov. 11, 1918 WWI
came to an end
• Now turned toward
peace settlement
Settling the Peace
• Woodrow Wilson-US
• Georges ClemenceauFrance
• David Lloyd GeorgeGreat Britain
• Wilson: 14 Points
(liberal)
1-5 included end to secret
treaties, freedom of the
seas, trade, and
reduction in national
armies/ navies
• 6-13 suggestions for
changing borders and
creating new nationsself determination
• 14-proposed a general
association of nationsLeague of Nations
• France/ Britain showed
little sign of agreeing
with Wilson-concerned
with national security
Settling the Peace
• France also wanted to
punish Germany
• Conference of Paris
began in January 1919
and the treaty of
Versailles was signed
June 28, 1919
• “diktat” –dictated peace
• (5 yrs to the day after
the assassination of
Franz Ferdinand in
Sarajevo)
• League of Nations-keep peace
(Germany and Russia excluded)
• Punished Germany-”war guilt”
clause (place sole responsibility
for the war on Germany and
they had to pay reparations to
the Allies)
• Germans nor Russians not ask to
Versailles to take part in the
treaty
Settling the Peace
• Germany had to return
Alsace-Lorraine to
France
• French border was
extended to the west
bank of the Rhine river
• Germany surrendered all
of its overseas colonies
in Africa and the Pacific
• Limited the size of the
German military
• Prohibited from importing or
manufacturing weapons/ subs
• Germany force to pay Allies
$33 billion in reparations over
30 years
• Promises to Arabs not kept
and France and Britain
divided up the Middle East 
• Japan targeted China
• Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam) ask for
conference with Wilson, who
refused!
New Nation-States
• Eastern Europe was
most change by peace • New states: Estonia,
treaties ending WWI
Latvia, Lithuania,
• Treaties created new
Czechoslovakia,
states to act as buffer
Yugoslavia
states. They were to • Old states winning
stop the spread of
independence:
communism and
Finland and Poland
German power
• Austria-Hungary
separated
New Nation-States
• New states were
ethnically diverse
• Ethnic unrest stemmed
from minority groups
ruling or being left out of
the political process
• Many economic
problems: no agricultural
revolution and borders
did not make economic
sense
• Border disputes were
common among many of
these states
• Poland and Russia actually
fought a land dispute in
1920
• States characterized by
low productivity,
unemployment, and
overpopulation
• New states were weak
and unstable
Failure of Treaty
• War Guilt Clause
• Exclusion of Russia
• Refusal of the U.S.
Congress to endorse all
aspects of the treaty
• Growing desire for
isolationism in Great
Britain
• Going back on promised
to Arabs
Nationalist Assaults
• During the war the European states used their colonies on the
Fronts (African and Asia soldiers ended up on the Western
Front) and they fed raw materials and goods to the nations.
• Britain even expanded the industrial sector in India to feed its
war needs
• African and Asians were ordered in the millions to fight
against and kill Europeans…suddenly the divisions between
European were revealed. Officers abroad were called back
and the posts had to be filled with locals. Additionally, many
promises such as independence were made to groups (Arabs).
But they interfered with their powers postwar expansion
plans.
• Fueled new group of political and intellectual leaders that
were anti-colony that had started prior to the war, but the war
helped to make the movements very large and justified them.
India: Challenge to British Raj
• Asia colonized prior to Africa so independence movements
naturally started here 1st
• India and Egypt provided examples
• 1885 National Congress party of India-composed of educated
Indians. Originally only intended to made known the opinions
of Indians and thought to protect against independence
movements…wrong…they ended up leading the way to
independence in India and governed through most of the
early years of independence.
• Early on few members and elite centered concerns with many
loyal individuals to the British.
• Felt the British government was racist towards Indians and
kept them down (limited opportunities and poor pay)
• In the National Congress party they started discussing
problems and found out they were similar than they thought.
A common Indian identity began to form!
Social Foundations of Movement
• National Congress Party soon expanded their efforts to
include more segments of society and found many common
complaints
• Business men quickly started backing the party due to unfair
trade policies given by the British to British investors over
Indian ones!
• Indian politicians discussed inequities of British and how they
were draining the Indian people of their resources. Plus
Indians were forced to pay for wars outside of India as well as
fat salaries of local British administrators.
• British saw India and export economy and kept them from
industrializing and competing with British manufactured
products (RRs)
• British also pushed for production of cash crops at the
expense of food which resulted in regional famines across
India. The government did little to help fix.
Rise of Militant Nationalism
• B.G. Tilak –early Indian nationalist (prior to WWI): religious
oriented cause along Hinduism (protect cows, no women’s ed.
Etc.) He wanted Indians to quite the British Raj administration
and military and to boycott British manufactured goods. He
advocated independence and was willing to use violence to
attain it.
• Not everyone liked his extreme ideas and the British
connected him back to dangerous writing so they exiled him
to Burma for 6 years –pretty much squashing the movement.
• Hindu communalists-violent break with British (pre WWI), but
they were secret (clandestine). Terrorist movement-taught
physical fitness, firearm use, and bomb making. British
crushed all revolts.
• Well educated Indian lawyers soon led the war: Gandhi,
Jinnah, and Nehru
• 1908 Morley-Minto Reforms-expanded Indian rights
Emergence of Gandhi
• India was the most important tropical dependency of the British
during the war supplying them: loans, raw materials,
manufactured goods, and soldiers. As war dragged on more
people of India started to break under the weight of obligation
and nationalist movements became popular
• Inflation happened driving prices upward and wages and value of
money downward. Result was peasant unrest and even famines!
• British promised movement towards Indian independence if they
continued to help during the war
-Montagu-Chelmsford reforms 1919-more Indians involved in
government 
-Rowlatt Act-1919 (after montagu reforms)-went back and placed
severe restrictions on Indian civil rights like freedom of the press

• After the war the British refused to honor wartime promises only
further exacerbating the issue
Mohandas Gandhi
• Emerged as a local leader and soon galvanized the people into
in all-Indian independence movement
• He was highly intellectual and very religious (guru)-a
combination that made him attract followers and wore out
adversaries (lawyer and Hindu). Middle class attracted to
Gandhi’s education and training while peasants attracted
because they viewed him as a saint.
• Prior to his fame he led a successful resistance movement
where he perfected his skills: Gandhi advocated-nonviolent,
but aggressive protest tactics that opened him up to both
moderate and radical supporters.
• Peaceful boycotts, strikes, noncooperation, and mass
demonstrations (satyagraha-truth force)
• This weakened the British because they couldn’t really use
violence against them
• Under Gandhi national protest surged in 1920s and 30s
Egypt/ Middle East Nationalism
• Egypt-early uprising prior to British-Ahmad Orabi against
Armenian Khedive family…led to British occupation in 1882
(double occupation)
• Egypt-Lord Cromer led reforms for political and financial
improvements, but only for Turco-Egyptian elite and bourgeoisie
at expense of peasants 
• Ayan benefited most from public works projects and became very
wealthy while the poor got poorer  -more disassociated with
rich
• Middle class (effendi) took over nationalistic struggle (business
and professional families)-many journalist led the way compared
to in India lawyers
• Arab newspapers popped up to expose mistakes of British and
corruption of khedives
• Various nationalist parties formed but they were rivals of one
another
Egypt and Middle East Nationalism cont
• Nationalistic groups didn’t speak for illiterate, poorly paid, and
ignored 
• Dinshawai incident 1906: British vs. Egyptians-Egyptians had raised
pigeons to supplement their diets. British started hunting pigeons in
select villages as a holiday hobby  One day while hunting pigeons
in the village of Dinshawai the British accidently shot a woman (wife
of prayer leader). Villagers mobbed the British who started firing on
the crowd…both sides suffered losses. Afterwards the British hung
4 villagers and flogged and forced into labor other villages
connected to Dinshawai as punishment.
• Harsh response by British united many Egyptians behind the
nationalist movement…even the ayan joined!
• 1913 British started giving into some demands of British-granted a
constitution and representation somewhat in Parliament
• BUT these were taken back in WWI-conditions in war strained
society even more and led to more nationalistic support like in India
Revolt in Egypt 1919
• Nationalist movements grew due to British and
Khedive corruption and the weight of the war.
• Wafd party-leader Sa’d Zaghlud –proved mass
base to work from
• 1936 Egypt became free of British control, but
the Khedival family still in control until 1952
• Didn’t do much to relieve proglems of homeless
• Egypt-angry about broken promises and war time
treatment: d
• 1952 Gamal Abdul Nasser
War and Nationalists Movements in Middle
East
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Ottoman Empire-lost in war and the empire disappeared as Britain, France, Italy, and Greece moved
in to take control of the territories
Mustafa Kemal-Ataturk-(a former Young Turk) was a Turkish officer during war and after war rallied
Turkish forces to fight back Greek armies.
1923 an independent Turkish republic established
Ataturk drove out ethnic Greeks from Turkey and began radical reforms based on western ideas
(Latin alphabet, women’s suffrage, criticism of veil)
Beirut, Damascus, and Baghdad had been promised freedom in 1915-16 for fight on side of the
Triple Entente, but after the war the Allies went back on deal. They were angry and humiliated,
after all they had agreed to attack fellow Muslims (Ottoman Turks). Europeans under the League of
Nations gave mandates (government entrusted to European nations in the Middle East after WWI:
British occupied Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, and Palestine after 1922).
Palestine-angry from Muslims over European discussion of a Jewish homeland. During war
promised Palestine to both Arabs and Jewish Zionists (return to holy land). Balfour Declarationpledge by Lord Balfour ,the British foreign secretary, that Jews would return to their homelands in
the Middle East
Growing anti-Jewish sentiment: pogroms in Russia and Romania  Zionism became a Jewish and
racist idea all in one?(ghettos)
Dreyfus Affair-French Jew in the military charged with selling secrets-no evident, convicted because
he as Jewish.
Jewish immigration to the Palestine angrered many locals
Beginnings in Africa
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Started colonization right before WWI-some limited missionary efforts produced
some western education (many loyal to European state during war). Drew upon
colonies for soldiers and raw materials. Africans rebelled over military conscription
and labor demands-again Africans soon same war experience as Indians which led
to increased nationalism.
Throughout Africa after the war there were strikes and riots. There were even
outright rebellions in some places especially after the Great Depression
It wasn’t until the 1940s that western education Africans linked up with African
urban workers and peasant to really push for independence.
Pan-African organizations-started typically by African-Americans (W.E.B. Du Bois) in
an attempt to arouse all-African loyalty and work together on important issues,
but Africans in Africa had very difference problems and experiences than Africans
in Europe and the U.S.
By mid 1920s British and French nationalists had gone their ways and focused on
their own independent movements
Negritude literary movement-celebrated beauty of African people and culture
while combating racial stereotyping of Europeans!!!
With the exception of settler colonies the British started giving greater
opportunities to Africans to build political associations-what came of this was
groups such as the National Congress of British West Africa that were pan-colony
associations. These groups eventually gave way to individual nationalistic
movements in colonies.
In Africa mass followings to nationalistic movements would not come to pass until
after the second world war!
World War and Global Upheavals
• WWI or the Great War
-did much to undermine the position of dominance by Europe
-Disrupted economy and created new competitors: U.S. and Japan
-Pressures of war reignited class tensions leading to full blown
revolutions like in Russia and liberal parties (labor and socialist)
gaining power in Europe
-Women’s roles changed and were challenged
-Racism challenged
• Triple Entente held onto their colonies in spite of their promises to
the colonies of independence-raising much resistance and
nationalistic movements such as Ghandi
• Early uprisings in India, Egypt, Vietnam, and China established
protest techniques used by others later against their overlords
• Russia supported decolonization efforts around the world
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Black Woman, Lines 10-19
Naked woman, dark woman
Ripe fruit with firm flesh, dark raptures of black wine,
Mouth that gives music to my mouth
Savanna of clear horizons, savanna quivering to the fervent
caress
Of the East Wind, sculptured tom-tom, stretched drumskin
Moaning under the hands of the conqueror
Your deep contralto voice is the spiritual song of the
Beloved.
3. Colonialism
Prayer for Peace (I of V only)
to Georges and Claude Pompidou
I.
Lord Jesus, at the end of this book, which I offer You
As a ciborium of sufferings
At the beginning of the Great Year, in the sunlight
Of Your peace on the snowy roofs of Paris
-- Yet I know that my brothers' blood will once more redden
The yellow Orient on the shores of the Pacific
Ravaged by storms and hatred
I know that this blood is the spring libation
The Great Tax Collectors have used for seventy years
To fatten the Empire's lands
Lord, at the foot of this cross - and it is no longer You
Tree of sorrow but, above the Old and New Worlds,
Crucified Africa,
And her right arm stretches over my land
And her left side shades America
And her heart is precious Haiti, Haiti who dared
Proclaim Man before the Tyrant
At the feet of my Africa, crucified for four hundred years
And still breathing
Let me recite to You, Lord, her prayer of peace and pardon.
EMPEROR FRANCIS JOSEPH I
Emperor of Austria
Francis Joseph I
(Habsburg Family)
Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Sophie in Sarajevo
June 28, 1914 before the assassination
Csar Nicholas II & King George V
Royal Family of Russia –Romanovs
Rasputin
WARNING DISTURBING Pictures of the victims of the Armenian Genocide of 1915
Many believe that because of the lack of
involvement by the international community to
stop the Turks that later Hitler believed that
genocide was the answer to land expansion
because no one would really care just like with
the Armenians
THE BIG FOUR OF VERSAILLES 1919
Big Four in Peace of Paris
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Gandhi
B.G. Talik
Lord Cromer
Alfred Dreyfus
Leopold Sedar
Senghor
Ataturk
Sa’d Zaghlul
http://www.emersonkent.com/history/timelines/world_war_I_timeline_1914.htm pic of
Archduke Ferdinand and wife, the big four, emperor Joseph I, and all war maps
http://www.curiouschapbooks.com/Catalog_of_Curious_Chapbooks/Victoria_s_Dark_Secre
ts/VDS-5/body_vds-5.html Rasputin
http://www.warcrimes.info/shop/html/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=375
Armenian Genocide pics
http://swapnilamoda.blogspot.com/2009/06/tilak-extremism-in-indian-politics.html B.G. Talik
http://www.parallelsixty.com/famous-russians.shtml Romanov family picture
http://www.philatelicdatabase.com/collections/relax-with-stamps/ Picture of George V and
Nicholas II
http://jegans.wordpress.com/2009/10/12/mahatma-gandhi-inventor-of-ahimsa/ Gandhi
http://wpcontent.answers.com/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/LordCromer.jpg/200pxLordCromer.jpg Lord Cromer
http://uwmesp.files.wordpress.com/2009/11/ataturk1.jpg Ataturk
http://is.muni.cz/do/1499/el/estud/praf/js09/dejiny/web/img/11/03.jpg Dreyfus
http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/61/44461-003-943FB91B.gif Zaghlul
http://www.web-libre.org/medias/img/articles/6048ff4e8cb07aa60b6777b6f7384d52-2.jpg
Senghor