Sociology, Chapter 10
Gender Stratification

Laura Le Van and Kirsten Cuddy
Defining Gender

What gender is not:
– Sex - the biological differences between
men and women
– Sex Role - behaviors, attitudes and
motivations a culture considers appropriate
for men and women
– Sexual Orientation - attraction to
members of the opposite, same or both
sexes
Defining Gender

What gender is:
– Gender is a set of social and cultural
practices that both reflect and reinforce
assumptions about differences between
men and women
Defining Gender

Major sociological emphasis - 3 Points
– Gender is a social institution. Like family
and religion it affects the roles men and
women play in society
– Gender influences differences in “Power”


“Power to” (get jobs, earn, get education)
“Power over” (assert will against others)
– Gender is a cultural construct, expectations
for men and women vary widely
How Different are the Sexes

What are traditional Western sex role
expectations for men and women?

How is success measured in today’s
society for males and females?
Sex Role Expectations

Men

Independent
Aggressive
Sex Initiators
Career Focus
Suppress Emotions

Success = Achievements




Sex Role Expectations

Women

Nurturing/Friendly
Self-Conscious about Appearance
Social Poise
Passive
Submissive
Focus on Marriage and Children

Success = Relationships





What does the data say?
– Athletic ability:

Men have greater upper body strength but,
athletic ability, strength and endurance are
largely of function of physical activity, training,
genes and hormones
– Intelligence:


Recent studies contradict stereotypes.
Differences in math, verbal and mechanical test
scores are very small
Many studies show greater variation within
sexes than between
Why is stereotyping so
prevalent?
– Studies tend to emphasize the differences
rather than the similarities
– When differences are found, people tend to
assume that all men or women are
superior in a given category
– Cultures reinforce stereotyping
Cultural Influences
– All pre-industrial societies divide labor
based on sex
– What individual culture considers male or
female work varies widely
– Regardless of roles, virtually all cultures
place a higher value on men’s roles
Cultural Influences
– Western societies tend to see women as
weak and delicate
– Other cultures do not (sub-Saharan Africa)
– Generally, the more economic power
women have the more egalitarian the
society
Gender Socialization

Begins soon after birth
– Reinforced by parents
– Reinforced by school
– Reinforced by peers
The Mismeasure of Women

We tend to fall into the trap of using
men as the “standard”
– Politically
– Economically
– Education
– Medicine
Women: the 52% Minority
Inequality at Work

Unequal pay
– In 1995, women earned an average of 71
cents for every dollar men earned
– Equal Pay Act of 1963 and the Civil Rights
Act of 1964 (equal pay for equal work)
– Women, on average earn less than men
with the same levels of education and
years of experience
Inequality at Work

Gender Segregation
– In the last 20 years, women have been
making strides in traditionally all-male
occupations
– “men’s work” vs “women’s work”
– comparable worth - the effort to correct
gender bias in wages
Inequality at Work

Job Mobility
– Women must typically choose career or
motherhood (“mommy track”)
– Business schedules are not flexible
– Glass Ceiling - subtle barriers that keep
women from advancing in corporate
America.
Inequality at Work
Sticky Floor - most women never get to
experience a glass ceiling, instead they
experience a “sticky floor”
 Men are promoted faster and further

Inequality:
Work, Family , and Sex
– Women are overlooked for employment
and promotion because they might
become pregnant

Sexual harassment - a form of discrimination
in which sexual advances, requests for sexual
favors or demeaning sexual references are a
condition for employment or promotion and/or
create a work environment that is hostile,
intimidating, or offensive.
Inequality:
Work, Family, and Sex
– The division of labor and balance of power
in the family has changed, but not by
much
– Institutionalized Sexism - Established
social patterns that have the unintended
consequence of limiting women’s
opportunities
Equality for Women:
A Century of Struggle

The Women’s Movement
– Feminism - the belief that women are
equal to men and should have equal rights
and opportunities

Overall Pattern:
– started more than 100 years ago
– peaked around the turn of the century with
voting rights then faded
– renewed emphasis in the 1960’s
The Modern Women’s
Movement

History - pages 386-87
– “The Past 100 Years”

Factors contributing to modern women’s
movement:1960’s




Climate of social change
Collective injustice
Organization
Structural change (# children in family)
2 Types of Feminists

Liberal - believe change is possible in
our society
– used legal efforts such as boycotts and
demonstrations

Radical - believe true equality not
possible in a patriarchal society.
Fundamental social change required
– started women’s clinics, day care centers,
shelters for victims, feminist bookstores
Victories, Setbacks
and Institutionalization

Early 1970’s
– Victory in female educational and career
opportunities and in abortion rights

1980’s - setback
– The New Right - accused the women’s
movement of being “anti-family”
– Feminists accused of wanting to undermine
traditional religious and family values
Regrouping - 1990’s

1992 - The Year of the Woman
– 6 new women elected to U.S. Senate and
19 to the House.
– For the first time, a woman becomes the
attorney general (Janet Reno)
– 1994 - Congress passes the Violence
Against Women Act.
– 1998 - Madeline Albright becomes the first
Secretary of State.
Men and Masculinity

The Hazards of Being Male
– White, middle-class - are the privileged
class and normative gender

Double edged sword - close exam shows dark
side





health
suicide
life span
emotional stress
victims of homicide
The Good Provider

A man is judged by his ability to provide
for his family.
– Concept dates back to Industrial Revolution
– Economics in the 1970’s made this
difficult/impossible.
– Recession of mid-1980’s and early 1990’s
further eroded the role of good provider
“The New Father”

As women’s movement gathered
momentum, new image of the good
father began to take shape.
– Present at childbirth, involved/participates
in day to day work with children as infants
and older whether male or female


Reality of “new father” is lag between ideals
and reality creates marital conflict and guilt.
Single parent males best fit the ideal of this
model.
Redefining Masculinity

Old definitions – real men don’t cry, sing, pray, admit their
feelings to others, or form close friendships

New definitions – Men are breaking out of old career molds,
paying more attention to their physical and
emotional health - but they still suffer from
stress-related diseases and early death
Jim
Intelligent
 Graduate of UCLA, doctor
 Upper-middle socioeconomic status
 Married to junior high teacher
 Great sense of humor
 Kind, caring, loyal
 House mate

Sexual Orientation



U.S. assumption is “normal” or “natural”
sexual orientation is between adults of
opposite sex.
Social Identity of homosexuality greatly
shapes the way others view a person or
interact with them.
Attitudes about homosexual behavior varies
in time and place. (Greeks approved)
Sexual Orientation


Judeo-Christian in general condemn all sex
not connected to procreation. Homosexuality
viewed as immoral and sinful. Considered to
be a weakness, not a sickness.
Pathological view of homosexual behavior
dates to late 19th century and followers of
Freud saw homosexual as maladjustment or
mental illness. This lead to “homophobia”
first part of 20th century
Sexual Orientation

Homophobia - prejudice and
discrimination against gays and lesbians
– Homosexuals were subject to systematic
persecution
– In Nazi Germany, they were sent to death
camps
– In U.S. they were treated as criminals
– Result - homosexual activities were hidden
Sexual Orientation
Modern Observations

Kinsey found homosexual activities to
be more common than anyone
suspected
– every socioeconomic level
– not an either-or “condition”
– eliminated as mental disorder in 1973
Gay Rights Movement

1969 - first public protest against
homosexual harassment at Stonewall
Riot in NY
– Homosexuals began to “come out of the
closet” and protest discrimination
– AIDS epidemic led to sympathy by some
and condemnation by others
– 1990’s - Gay community divided

Mainstream vs radical
Gay Rights
– Discrimination and violence continues.
There is still no federal law protecting
homosexuals against discrimination.
– Homosexuals remain a minority group:
they do not enjoy equal rights.