Do Now: Tuesday, Sept. 16
• Objective: Major Bones of Skeleton
• Do Now:
1. List as many parts of the skeletal system as
you can (at least 5).
2. List as many joints as you can think of in your
body (at least 5).
Skeletal System and
Major Bones of the Skeleton
Please note that this power point will take
about 3 days to complete
Day 1 Slides 1-60
Day 2 Slides 61-102
Day 3 Slides 103-189
What Is It?
1. Skeletal System:
framework of bones and
other tissues that supports
the body (206 bones)
Human Skeleton
Our bodies are made
up of 206 bones.
Babies have more
than 206 bones
because their bones
have not fused
(grown) together all
the way.
Functions:
2. Skeletal System Functions:
• gives body structure
• protects internal organs
• works with muscles to
allow body to move
Skeletal System:
Gives the body structure
Support!
Charlie Brown
Skeletal System:
Protects Organs
Skeletal
System provides
support and
protection for our
internal organs.
Ex: ribcage
protects lungs
& heart.
What does the skull protect?
Skeletal System:
Helps us move!
Why Are Bones Important?
3. Bones store calcium and other
minerals
4. Bones make blood cells:
• Bone marrow: tissue inside
bones that makes blood.
Bones:
Make Blood
The bones of the
skeletal system
produce blood cells
and store important
minerals such as
calcium and
phosphorus.
Joints
5. Joints: place where two or more
bones meet, allow us to move.
Major Bones of the Skeleton
BONE #1: CRANIUM
1. Cranium:
• Skull
• Protects the brain
Label the Skeleton
1
10
2
11
12
13
14
15
16
3
4
5
17
18
6
7
19
8
9
20
21
22
BONE #2: Mandible
2. Mandible:
• Jaw
• Strongest bone in
face
Label the Skeleton
BONE #3: CLAVICLE
3. Clavicle:
• The collarbone
Label the Skeleton
BONE #4: SCAPULA
4. Scapula:
• Shoulder blade
• Connects the arms
to body
Label the Skeleton
BONE #5: HUMERUS
5. Humerus:
• Upper arm
Label the Skeleton
BONE #6: RADIUS
6. Radius
•Forearm bone
•On thumb side
Label the Skeleton
BONE #7: ULNA
7. Ulna
•Forearm bone
•On pinky side
Label the Skeleton
Review:
ARM
BONES
BONE #8: CARPALS
8. Carpals
• 8 wrist bones
Label the Skeleton
BONE #9: METACARPALS
9. Metacarpals
• 5 bones in the hand
•Join wrist to fingers
Label the Skeleton
BONE #10: PHALANGES
10. Phalanges
•Finger bones
•3 in each finger
(only 2 in thumb)
Label the Skeleton
Review: HAND BONES
BONE #11: Sternum
11. Sternum:
- Breastbone
Label the Skeleton
BONE #12: RIB CAGE
12. Rib cage
• Protects heart and
lungs
•12 pairs
Label the Skeleton
BONE #13: VERTEBRAE
13. Vertebrae
• 26 bones of the
spine
Label the Skeleton
Vertebrae
BONE #14: PELVIS
14. Pelvis
•Ilium: hands on hips
•Ischium: “sit bones”
•Pubis: connects hip
bones together
Label the Skeleton
BONE #15: FEMUR
15. Femur
• Thigh bone
• Largest/strongest
bone in body
Label the Skeleton
BONE #16: PATELLA
16. Patella
• Knee cap
Label the Skeleton
BONE #17: FIBULA
17. Fibula
• Calf bone
• Smallest of leg
bones
Label the Skeleton
BONE #18: TIBIA
18. Tibia
• Shin bone
Label the Skeleton
BONE #19: TARSALS
19. Tarsals
• 7 ankle bones
Label the Skeleton
BONE #20: METATARSALS
20. Metatarsals
• 5 foot bones
Label the Skeleton
BONE #21: PHALANGES
21. Phalanges:
•14 toes
•3 in each toe
(only 2 in big toe)
Label the Skeleton
Guided Practice
• With a partner, make 21 post-it notes with the
major bones that we learned today.
• Then, using one person as the “skeleton,”
label each bone.
Do Now: Wednesday, Sept 17
 Objective: Major Bones of Skeleton
 Do Now:
1. What are the three main functions of the
skeletal system?
2. What are the two main reasons bones are
important?
Whiteboard Practice
• Whiteboards rules:
– Only write on the boards the answers to the
questions
– You will have about 15 seconds to answer the
question.
– Keep your answers to yourself.
– I will tell you when to raise the boards up.
– Participation points: you will receive a zero for the
day if you do not participate on every question
Label the Skeleton
Which bone is it?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1. Protects the brain?
2. Jaw?
3. Protects the heart and lungs?
4. Spine?
5. Thigh bone?
6. Ankle?
7. Wrist?
8. Upper arm?
Which bone is it?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
9. Forearm bone on pinky side?
10. Forearm bone on thumb side?
11. Fingers and toes?
12. Sit bones?
13. Hands on hips?
14. Knee cap?
15. Shoulder blade?
16. Collarbone?
More Practice….Mr. C. Says
• Directions:
– Sit down when you get one of the bones incorrect.
– Only point to the bone if I say, “Mr. C. says…”
Last person standing gets 5 bonus points on quiz on
FRIDAY!
Independent Practice
• Take out a sheet of paper.
• When I point to one of the bones on the
skeleton, write the name of the bone on your
sheet of paper.
• See how many you can get right.
• You will be graded on participation, not
accuracy.
Do Now: Wed., Sept. 17
• Objective: Axial vs. Appendicular Skeleton
• Do Now:
– What is your jaw bone?
– What is the strongest/biggest bone in your body?
– What is the difference between the radius and
ulna?
– What is the difference between the tibia and
fibula?
– What bone is the knee cap?
Skeletal System Divisions
• Skeletal system is divided into 2 major parts:
– Axial Skeleton
– Appendicular Skeleton
Axial Skeleton
• 80 bones
• Function:
– Forms the longitudinal axis of the body
– Bones are fused together – little range of motion
Axial Skeleton
• Consists of:
• Skull: cranium and facial bones
• Vertebral column
• Rib cage and sternum (bony thorax)
Appendicular Skeleton
• 126 bones
• Function:
– Movement of the axial skeleton (lower limbs)
– Manipulating objects (upper limbs)
Appendicular Skeleton
• Consists of:
– Upper limb (arm)
– Pectoral girdle (attach arm body)
– Lower limb (leg)
– Pelvic girdle (attach leg to body)
Practice
• Axial vs. Appendicular Skeleton Coloring
– Choose one color and color the axial skeleton.
– Choose another color and color the appendicular
skeleton.
– Label the major bones.
– Answer the practice questions.
Quick write: Thursday, Nov. 18
• Objective: Joints
• Do Now: What is a joint? List 5 examples of
joints in your body.
What is a joint?
• A place where two or more bones
are joined together!
Joints
• Three types of joints:
– Fixed
– Partially moveable
– Moveable
Fixed Joints
• A fixed joint does not move; it is
fixed in place!

Example:

cranium
Partially Moveable Joints
• A partially moveable joint allows for
some movement, but not much!

Example:

vertebrae
Moveable Joints
• A moveable joint allows for
complete movement of the bones!

There are 5 types of moveable joints…

ball-and-socket
hinge
pivot
gliding

saddle



Ball-and-Socket
• A ball and socket joint allows bones
to swing in almost any direction

– Produce a variety of movements
Examples:


Shoulder: humerus meets scapula
Hip: femur meets pelvis
Hinge
• A hinge joint allows movement in
ONE direction

– Motion in only one plane
– Like opening/closing a door
Examples:



Knee: tibia and femur
Finger/toe: phalanges
Elbow: humerus meets radius/ulna
Pivot
• A pivot joint is when one bone rests
and rotates from a certain point
– Allows a rotation similar to turning
a dial

Example:


neck
Forearm: radius meets ulna
Gliding
• A gliding joint is where two bones
that can move separately meet
– Allows a variety of side-to side
movements
 Example:


Wrist: carpals
Ankle: tarsals
Saddle
• A saddle joint is when one bone
moves back and forth on the other
bone

Example:
Thumb:
metacarpal
meets phalange

Knee?
Hinge
Wrist?
Gliding
Vertebrae?
Partially Moveable
Cranium?
Fixed
Thumb?
Saddle
Moves in any direction?
Ball-and-Socket
Shoulder?
Ball-and-Socket
Only slight movement?
Partially Moveable
Hip?
Ball-and-Socket
No movement?
Fixed
Elbow?
Hinge
Rotating from side to side?
Pivot
Moves in only ONE direction?
Hinge
Neck?
Pivot
Practice
•
•
•
•
Human skeleton
Graphic organizer - chart
Labeling worksheet
Practice questions
Do Now: Thursday, September 18
• Objective: Bones Quiz and Skeletal System
Reading
• Do Now: What bone is…
– Ankle?
– Wrist?
– Back?
– Collarbone?
– Shoulder blade?
– Upper arm?
Human Skeleton Reading
• With a partner, read through the Human
Skeleton Reading and answer the following
questions in your notes:
– 1. How many bones do adults have?
– 2. Who has more bones: babies or adults? Why?
– 3. Bones grow by turning ____________ to bone.
– 4. In how many years do your bones grow enough
to form a new skeleton?
– 5. What is the smallest, biggest, most useless, and
funny bone?
Do Now: Thursday, September 18
• Objective: Development of Bone
• Do Now:
1. What type of joint is the elbow and knee?
2. What type of joint is the hip and shoulder?
3. What is the only saddle joint in the body?
4. What is the only fixed joint in the body?
**Open books to page 365.
Graphic Reading Organizer
• Vocabulary: osteoblasts, ossification, osteocytes,
osteoclasts, osteoporosis
• 1. What are the purposes of bone?
• 2. What happens during ossification from
osteoblasts to periosteum?
• 3. How is bone deposited, broken down, and
replaced?
• 4. What do osteoclasts do and how do they do it?
• 5. What is osteoporosis and what does it have to
do with calcium?
• Objective: How to Distinguish Males from
Females
• Do Now: What do you think are some
differences between male and female
skeletons?
Upcoming Agenda
• Forensic Anthropology: ~one week
• Handwriting Analysis/Chromatography: two
weeks (LABS, LABS, LABS)
• Toxicology and Drugs: three weeks
(project)
END OF 3rd Quarter!
Textbook Reading
• Read pages 365-368 and complete the guiding
reading questions.
• For extra credit, complete activity 13-2 on
page 381.
Do Now: Thursday, Feb. 3
• Objective: FA Case Studies
• Do Now: Get a computer out and complete
two case study summaries.
Last day of Forensic Anthropology is today!
Bones Episode tomorrow!
Slides that Follow…
• Chapter Notes
• Gender
• Age
• Height
• Bone Quiz
Forensic Anthropology
(F.A.)
• A type of applied physical anthropology that
specializes in the human skeletal system for
purposes of identifying unknown remains
• Information gathered from the skeletal
remains of an individual is the principal source
of information about an unidentified
individual
Questions can be Answered Using
Forensic Anthropology
•
•
•
•
Are the remains animal or human?
Are the remains male or female?
What is the age of the victim?
What was the manner of death?
– Natural, accidental, homicidal, suicidal,
undetermined
• What was the cause of death?
– Millions of possibilities; usually determined by
injuries to the body
Forensic Anthropology
Requires Knowledge of
the Skeleton
1.
Skull
2.
Mandible
12. Tibia
3.
Clavicle
13. Iliac Crest
4.
Sternum
14. Os Pubis
5.
Xyphoid Process
6.
Humerus
7.
Radius
8.
Ulna
9.
Os Coxae
10. Femur
11. Fibula
Animal or Human?
• Osteology--the study of bones
• Human and animal bones have very
different structures
• When partial bones are only available,
scientists look at the osteons
– Osteons are the holes in bones that carry blood
– In animals, they form regular patterns
– In humans, the patterns are known to be more
random
Male or Female?
• Bones in the male skeleton tend to be larger
than those of the female skeleton
• The os pubis, sacrum, and the ilium of the
pelvis are bones that have the most obvious
differences between men and women
Male or Female?
• The ventral arc on
the female pelvic
bones is also more
defined than that of
the male pelvic
bones
Male or Female?
Male or Female?
Male or Female?
Male
Female
Age?
• Growth plates called epiphyses form together
and eventually unite with age.
Age?
• Cranial sutures also form a completely
connected skull by a certain age
Age?
• Scientists use the general age for sutures to
fuse and compare that age to how formed
together these bones are and can make a
general age estimate
Race?
• Caucasoid:
– Descriptor for people of European, Middle
Eastern, and East Indian Descent
– Characteristics:
•
•
•
•
•
Long, narrow nasal aperture
A Triangular Palate
Oval Eye Orbits
Narrow Zygomatic Arches
Narrow Mandibles
Race?
Race?
• Negroid:
– A descriptor for people of African, Aborigine, and
Melanesian decent
– Characteristics:
•
•
•
•
•
Wide Nasal Aperture
A Rectangular Palate
Square Eye Orbits
Pronounced Zygomatic Arches
Long bones are longer and have greater density
Race?
Race?
• Mongoloid:
– Descriptor for people of Asian, Native American,
and Polynesian descent
– Characteristics:
•
•
•
•
•
Rounded nasal aperture
Parabolic palate
Rounded eye orbits
Wide zygomatic arches
Pointed mandibles
Race?
Facial Reconstruction
• Used when traditional methods of
identification are not useful
• Uses standard tissue thickness and facial
muscles to build a new face on a skull
• The skull and skeleton gives information
about age, race, and gender
• Not totally accurate and is more of an art
form based in science
Steps in Facial Reconstruction
• Establish age, gender,
and if possible, race
• Glue tissue markers to
landmarks directly on
the skull for tissue
thickness
Steps in Facial Reconstruction
• Mark muscle insertion points and mount
markers for thickness of tissue
• Mount eyes in sockets at the proper depth
• Apply clay to the skull following the
contours, using markers and muscle
insertion points
• Make measurements to determine nose
thickness and length and the mouth
thickness and width
Steps in Facial Reconstruction
• Cover the skull with layers of skin and add the
details of the face
Facial Reconstruction
Catalyst 02.01.10
• As a forensic anthropologist you are given a
set of human remains (bones) and are asked
to give as much information as you can to the
investigators. What kind of information can
you give them? Explain.
• Take out the bone activity from yesterday, we
will discuss it after attendance.
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
134
Chapter 13 Forensic Anthropology:
What We Learn from Bones
By the end of this chapter you will be able to:
• describe how bone is formed
• distinguish between male and female skeletal remains
• explain how bones contain a record of injuries and
disease
• describe how a person’s approximate age could be
determined
• discuss the role of mitochondrial DNA in bone
identification
All Rights Reserved South-Western / Cengage Learning © 2009
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
135
Historical Development
1.
2.
3.
4.
1800s: scientists began studying skulls.
1932: FBI opened the first crime lab.
FBI + Smithsonian Institute = BFF.
Soldiers killed in World War II were identified using
anthropologic techniques.
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
136
Characteristics of Bone
• What are the characteristics of bone?
– They are alive.
– They grow and repair damage.
– They are rigid, but slightly flexible. WHY is this a
good thing?
• What are the functions of bone?
– Movement / support / protection
– Store calcium (Ca)
– Create RBCs in bone marrow
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
137
Development of Bone
•
Bones originate from cells called osteoblasts.
•
They migrate to the center of cartilage
production and deposit minerals (Ca mostly).
•
Throughout life, bones are broken down,
deposited, and replaced. WHY?
•
Osteoclasts break down bone to reshape the
skeleton and remove cell waste.
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
138
Development of Bone
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
139
Number of Bones
• How many bones do you
have in your body?
– Adults have an average of
206 bones.
• Some have more, some
have less, WHY?
– Infants have 450 bones,
WHY?
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
140
How Bones Connect
•
Bones are held together at joints by:
a. cartilage—wraps the ends of bones
and keeps them from scraping one
another.
b. ligaments—connect two or more
bones together.
c. tendons—connect muscle to bone.
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
141
Aging of Bones
• Until about 30 years of age, bones increase in size.
• Deterioration after 30 can be slowed with exercise.
• Which is the picture
of
osteoporosis?
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
Why?
142
What Bones Can Tell Us
•
•
•
•
Osteobiography tells about a person through the
study of the skeleton.
The bones of a right-handed person, for example,
would be slightly larger than the bones of the left
arm. WHY?
Forensic scientists realize that bones contain a
record of the physical life. Give examples.
Analyzing bones can reveal clues to such things as
gender, age, height, and health.
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
143
Gender
• Look at chart 13.11 on page 367.
– Reconstruct this chart in your notes. Study the
chart as you work and be prepared to answer the
questions on the next slide.
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
144
Gender
•
•
•
•
Is the female skull smoother than the male’s?
Which frontal bone is lower and sloping?
Are the male’s eye orbits more circular?
Which jaw is more square, with an angle that
is closer to 90o?
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
145
Gender
•
One of the easiest methods of
determining the gender of a skeleton is by
examining the pelvis.
• The surface of a woman’s pelvis can be
scared. WHY?
• The sub pubic angle of the female pelvis is
greater than 90o; the male’s, less.
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
146
Gender – Male or Female?
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
147
Conclusion Questions
• What can bones tell us about a person?
• What are four differences between a male and
female skeleton?
• Homework: Read pgs 362-368 and review
notes. Prepare for a bone quiz tomorrow.
– Focus on the differences between a male and
female pelvis and the development of bones.
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
148
Catalyst 1.29.09
• Can we know for sure that a skeleton is male
or female if we only look at brow ridge on the
skull? Explain.
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
149
Age
• During life, many of the 450 bones a person has at
birth grow together, finally forming 206 bones.
• As the cartilage between them is replaced, an
epiphysis line is visible.
• When the cartilage is fully replaced, the line is no
longer visible.
• This information can be used to approximate a
skeleton’s age.
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
150
Age
• Epiphyseal
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
Lines
151
How to Distinguish Age
• Different bones mature at different rates.
• So using multiple bone characteristics we can
estimate age.
• Like gender we need to look at many
indicators, not just one.
• Look at the chart on page 370. Reflect on
what this means for a person’s skeleton.
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
152
How to Distinguish Age
•
•
•
By about age 30, the suture at the back of the skull
will have closed.
By about age 32, the suture running across the top of
the skull, back to front, will have closed.
By about age 50, the suture running side to side over
the top of the skull, near the front, will have closed.
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
153
Height
• Like age and gender height can be
estimated as well. Why is this important?
• The approximate height of a person can be
calculated from one of the long bones even
if just one of those is found.
• Gender and race will need to be taken into
consideration in making the estimate (if
possible).
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
154
How to Distinguish Race
• Why is this more difficult and less precise than
height, gender and age?
• Can be done using the skull and femur bones.
• Look at the chart on page 13.21 what are the
three general race categories forensic
anthropologists use?
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
155
Facial Reconstruction
• A face is formed by the skull with the muscles and
•
•
•
•
tissues on top of the skull.
Theoretically, nonetheless, a face can be rebuilt from
just skeletal remains.
Facial markers are positioned at critical locations on a
skull, and clay is contoured to follow the height of the
markers.
Today, computer programs perform a similar function.
These computer programs also can age missing persons
and criminals.
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
156
Facial Reconstruction
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
157
DNA Evidence
•
•
•
•
Bone contains little nuclear DNA.
But it does contain mitochondrial DNA. What is this?
Long after nuclear DNA has been lost through tissue
degeneration, mitochondrial DNA can be obtained
from bone.
Results can be compared with living relatives on the
mother’s side of the family to identify skeletal
remains.
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
158
Skeletal Trauma Analysis
• Forensic anthropologists often determine if
damage to bones occurred before or after
death. Why is this important?
• Definite distinctions exist between patterns on
bones made by weapons and the patterns
created by the environment after death.
• Sharp-force trauma, blunt-force trauma,
gunshot wounds, and knife wounds all have
distinctive patterns.
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
159
Conclusion Questions
• What are three human characteristics that can
be determined from a skeleton? Why are these
important?
• What type of DNA can be found in a skeleton?
• What is facial reconstruction, why is it
important?
• HOMEWORK: Read pgs369-373 finish activities
13.1-13.2
Forensic Science:
Fundamentals &
Investigations, Chapter 13
160
Distinguishing Sex - Skulls

Brow ridge (thicker vs. thinner)
• Eye shape (square vs. round)

Jaw shape (more square vs. V-shaped)
Male
Female
Distinguishing Gender - Skulls
• Occipital Protuberance (present in males)
Distinguishing Gender - Skulls
•Frontal
bone
– low
&
sloping
vs.
high
& rounded
Surface
– rough
& bumpy
smooth
Jaw angle
– about
90°
vs. vs.
greater
than
90°
Male
Female
Was this person male or female?
Distinguishing Sex – Pelvis
• Subpubic angle –90° in females, less in males
Distinguishing Gender – Pelvis
• Pelvic cavity – big vs.
small
• Sacrum – curved out in
females, inward in
males
• Female pelvis may have
scarring from
childbirth.
Was this person male or female?
Distinguishing Gender – Thigh Bones
• The femur is thicker
in males and joins
the pelvis at a
straighter angle than
in females.
Estimating Age - Skull
• Skull plates grow together, forming suture marks.
• Teeth erupt with age
Estimating Age – Skull
• Suture marks where plates joined disappear
with age.
Estimating Age – Cartilaginous Lines
• Many bones grow together as we age,
replacing cartilage with bone.
• Different bones fuse at different ages.
Estimating Age – Cartilaginous Lines
• In long bones, the line of
remaining cartilage is
called the epiphysis.
• It disappears at different
ages in different long
bones.
Distinguishing Race
• Difficult due to mixed heritage
• Done by comparing shape of eye sockets,
absence or presence of nasal spine, measuring
the nasal opening, and comparing the
projection of the upper jaw.
Estimating Height
• Done by measuring
the long bones:
humerus, radius,
ulna, femur, tibia, &
fibula
• Length is put into a
formula that is
different depending
on race and gender.
Catalyst 1.28.09
• Is the background a male or female pelvis?
Justify your answer.
• Take out your notes and begin studying for
today’s quiz. You will have 5 minutes. Focus
on:
– Bone Development
– Gender differences.
• SKULL
• PELVIS
Homework
• Review your notes and today’s activities.
– Turn in any missing assignments or late work!
Bone Quiz
5. Skull A
Bone Quiz
6. Skull B
Bone Quiz
7. Skull C
Bone Quiz
8. Skull D
Bone Quiz
9. Pelvis E
Bone Quiz
10. Pelvis F
11. Pelvis G
Bone Quiz
12. Pelvis H
Activity 13.1 & 13.2
• Title and Date your lab book for Activity 13.1.
– For Procedure A: Write #’s 1-4 and estimate the
age of the individual.
– For Procedure A.1 (not found in your book) using
figure 13-19 (pg. 370) develop two new problems
using at least two different bone fusion indicators.
• Example: Humerous bones in the head are fused, but
the pubis and ischium are not completely united.
Activity 13.1 & 13.2
• Title and Date your lab book for Activity 13.2.
– For Procedure A: Write out case #’s 1-4 answer the
question then name the gender of the individual.
Explain your reasoning.
– For Procedure A.1 (not found in your book) using
your book develop two new cases using at least
two different bone indicators.
• Example: No scaring on the pelvis and smooth bones of
the skull? What is the gender of the individual?