SCLY4 Crime and
Deviance Revision
Cards 2014
1
The specification at a glance
Different theories of crime,
deviance,social order
and social control.
• Consensus theories vs
Conflict theories
• Functionalism
• Ecological
• Subcultural
• New Right/Control
• Marxism
• Neo-Marxism
• Labelling
The social distribution of
crime and deviance:
• Age
• Ethnicity
• Gender,
• Locality
• Social class
Globalisation and crime in
contemporary society;
• the mass media and
crime
• Globalisation and crime
• Green crime
• Human rights and state
crimes.
Crime control, prevention
and punishment,
victims, and the role of the
criminal justice system
and other agencies
• Policing and the courts
• Crime prevention
• Punishment (inc.
Prisons)
• Victimology
The sociological study of
suicide
• Studies of suicide
• Theoretical and
methodological
implications
The connections between
sociological theory and
methods and the study of
crime and deviance.
• Measuring crime (stats
etc)
• Methods in Context
2
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Theories of Crime and Deviance
Gender and crime
Age and Crime
Ethnicity and Crime
Social class and crime
Area and Crime
Mass Media and Crime
Globalisation and Crime
Policing and Courts
Crime Prevention
Punishment
Victimology
Suicide
Measuring crime (usefulness of statistics)
3
1. Theories of Crime and Deviance
Consensus Theories
Conflict Theories
Functionalist
Marxist
Subcultural
Neo-Marxist
Ecological
Feminist
New Right/Control Theory
Anti-Racist Sociology
Labelling
Harmony
Social control and socialisation
Community
Shared values
Police/courts/media fulfil a
positive function
• Trust crime statistics
• Blame ‘criminal’
•
•
•
•
•
• Conflict
• Social control and ideology
• Police/courts/media serve the
powerful
• Crime is socially constructed/
distrust statistics
• Blame ‘society’
4
For each theory ask….
• What influences our definition of
deviance/crime?
• What is the cause of crime and deviance?
• Who are likely to commit crime and deviance?
• What is social order based upon?
5
CONSENSUS THEORIES
6
CONSENSUS THEORIES – at a glance
Functionalism
Functions of
deviance
•
•
•
•
Shared values
Test boundaries
Punishment
unifies
Social rules = clear
Anomie
Strengthen
community
Strain theory
Subcultural
Ecological
New
Right/Control
Alternative values
Urban areas
Underclass
Delinquency
Lack of community
Moral decay
Status frustration
Disorganisation
Welfare dependency
Self-esteem/rebellion
Zone of transition
‘broken windows’
Illegitimate
Opportunity
Structure
Informal social
control
Families without
fatherhood
Differential
association
Community decline
Focal concerns
Sink estates
Cost-benefit
analysis
Tipping
Attachments/bonds
Nocturnal economy
Communitarianism
Poor socialisation
7
Functionalist
Studies
Evaluation
Durkheim
Functions of deviance
• Reinforces solidarity/commitment to
shared values
• Punishment unifies community
• Social rules = clear
• Singles out undesirables
• Boundaries reinforces/tested = change
Dysfunctions
• Crime is threat to social order
• Anomie – normlessness = deviance
Causes of crime
• Anomie from rapid social change
• Boundaries unclear/uncertainty
Social order & social control
• Consensus = shared values = order
• Social control = socialisation =
cohesion = integration = community
• Institutions restrict deviant behaviour
Durkheim
•
What is the right amount of crime? (not
scientific)
•
Would victims find crime beneficial?
•
Does not explain why certain people
commit crime (and what crimes they
choose to do)
•
Assume that laws reflect the interests of
all in society (ignores power/ideology)
•
Tends to ‘blame’ the deviant
Merton
•
How can ‘anomie’ be measured? (not
scientific)
•
Where do goals/means come from? (he
ignores role of capitalism)
•
Ignores subcultures driving the choice of
individuals
•
Doesn’t explain crimes that are not driven
by ‘economic goal’
Merton
• Strain theory (goals and means)
• Anomie = strain between goals/means
• American Dream = pressure
• 5 responses to anomie (eg, innovation)
General
• Ignore conflict in society (and power)
• Values are manipulated by the ruling class
• Laws are biased and serve the powerful
• Ignores crimes of the powerful
• Ignores group nature of crime
• Ignores selective policing/bias in the
criminal justice system
• Ignore how the media can create crime
8
Studies
Subcultural
(Functionalist)
Albert Cohen
• 1950s USA – juvenile delinquency
• Working class youths – socialised into
‘alternative’ norms and values
• Caused by status frustration & blocked
opportunities = sense of failure
• Rejection of mainstream values
• No monetary gain crime – vandalism
and fighting
• Gained status & rebellion
Cloward & Ohlin
• Illegitimate opportunity structure
• Career ladder – opportunities/status
• 3 structures (criminal/conflict
/retreatist)
• Criminal subculture – working class
areas/networks/role models etc
Miller
• Lower class values – socialisation into
these ‘focal concerns’
• Focal concerns – smartness/toughness/
excitement/fatalism etc
• A source of status/self-esteem
Evaluation
• Most working class boys do not
commit crime
• They ignore female deviance
• Ignore middle class subcultures
• Ignore crimes of the powerful
• Most youths grow out of it
• Assume working class youth are
raised in a vacuum and cut off
from wider society/values
• They ignore labelling/biased
policing
• Deterministic – ignore free will
• Accept crime statistics as true
• Matza notes how subcultural
membership is transitory 9
Studies
Ecological
•
•
•
•
Urban areas = high crime rate
City centre = less cohesion/ommunity
Normlessness = anomie
Social control is limited (informal)
Shaw & McKay
•
Neighbourhoods/zones
•
Zones have distinct cultures/values
•
Zone of transition = ‘twilight zone’ – inner
city (cheap rented housing, poverty, high
immigration, transitory population) = No
bonds…crime!
•
Social disorganisation = no sense of
community – unstable..no controls
•
Subculture = cultural transmission
•
Shaped by people around them (differential
association – Sutherland)
Marshall
•
Sink estates in UK = crime
Baldwin & Bottoms
•
Tipping – problem families onto certain
estates
•
Morris – Found similar results when problem
families concentrated in area (diff. assoc.)
•
Skogan (USA) – noted public space and
disorder there..decline of neighbourhood
Hobbs
•
Nocturnal economy – city centrespubs/clubs..expansion..more chance of
criminal activity there
Evaluation
•
Which comes first? (crime or social
disorganisation)?
•
Most people in these areas do not
commit crime
•
Ignores white collar crime by
wealthy people in suburbs
•
It may be that in urban areas there
is a high concentration of young,
deprived people…rather than area
•
Most youth crime is transitory..not
permanent/fixed
•
Maybe urban areas are policed more
and crime figures reflect the fact
they are over-policed
•
Some areas are treated as ‘problem
areas’ by councils/police
•
Ignores ‘gentrification’ of cities in
recent years, ie) Yuppie flats etc
•
Ignores strong sense of community
on working class estates 10
Studies
New Right/
Control
Theory
-
-
Underclass
theory
Rational
choice
theory
•
•
•
Fears of moral decay
Desire for greater control of people
who harm normal society
Critical of welfare state
Murray
• Underclass reject mainstream norms
and values
• Dependency culture
• Rise of single parents – lack of
discipline/no father figure/ poor
socialisation/instability
• Families without fatherhood (Dennis)
• Communities damaged – no bonds ‘good people’ move away
Wilson (Broken Windows)
• Communities need informal soc. Cont.
to reglate deviance
• Cost-benefit analysis = less chance of
getting caught/no fear punishment
Evaluation
•
Marxists are critical as the right use
this theory to justify inequality
•
Contradiction – belief in selfish
interests and community
•
Most working class citizen are moral
even though struggling in poverty
•
Ignores middle class crime
•
Ignores how the powerful
manipulate society to control poor
•
Attack on single parents
•
Ethnocentricism – bias
Etzioni
•
-
Control
theory
Government is disempowering
communities
Hirschi
• Low attachments = high crime
• Bonds (attachment/commitment/belief/
involvement
• Family = vital for socialisation
11
Norman Dennis - ‘Families without Fatherhood’ (1993)
Trends
•
30 years = family changes = weakened
•
Decline of the traditional family
•
Rise in cohabitation and decline of marriage
Issue
•
Family/community used to be a form of social control
•
They used to restrict the extremes behaviour of youth
•
People today struggle with ‘inner policeman’
Crime related to:
1.
Changing role of women = fathers now marginal
2.
Fathers leaving families = no role model/discipline
3.
Cohabitation = no moral fabric…values/morals are relative
Farrington & West - 1990
Findings
•
Study – Cambridge – Longitudinal study (1953-1990)
• 1/3 of 411 boys = offenders by age 25
Delinquency linked to:
• Types of family linked to crime
• Poor parenting
• Fathers had criminal records
• Poverty & single parenthood
12
CONFLICT THEORIES
13
CONFLICT THEORIES – at a glance
Traditional
Marxism
• Criminogenic
capitalism
• Laws serve
ruling class
Neo-Marxism
• Crisis of hegemony
• Symbolic resistance
• CCCS (Marxist
Subcultural theory)
Labelling
• Social construction of
deviance
• Deviance as relative
concept
• Ideological role
• Labelling process and
of law/social
• Fully social theory of
selective policing
control
deviance
• Effects of labelling
• White collar
• Selective policing
(primary-secondary
crime
deviance)
• Selective law
enforcement
• Deviance amplification
• Rule Creation
14
Traditional
Marxist
Theories
Studies
Evaluation
• Society shaped by economic base
• Capitalist class exploit working class
• Society is based on conflict – inequality and
power central to crime an deviance
• Laws serve the powerful – ideological
• Not all laws are just serving R/C –
many benefit workers
Law serves ruling class
•
R/C control laws
•
Law enforcement benefits R/C
•
Chambliss – protect private property –
business interest = profits (tax
loopholes/Vagrancy laws)
•
Snider – serve business – state avoids tighter
laws on pollution/Safety etc
• Too deterministic – ignores power of
SFP
Law as ideology & social control
•
Althusser – Ideological State App.
•
Law (and crime) is defined by R/C
•
Crime is seen as blood on streets & w/c
White collar crime
•
Crimes of the powerful (see next slide)
Criminogenic Capitalism
•
Crime is normal under capitalism =
greed/competition (Gordon)
•
Poverty is created by capitalism =
frustration/alienation
Selective Law enforcement
• Reiman – w/c crime most pursued
• Gordon – selective policing feeds stereotype
and divides w/c
• Laws reflect value consensus
• High crime rates in socialist countries
• Ignore the importance of
values/culture and socialisation in
criminality
• Ignores individual motivation
• Ignores gender/ethnic inequality
• Not all w/c people commit crime
• Left-Realists not how this focuses
too much on crimes of the powerful
• Laws can act against the R/C
15
White-Collar Crime
What is it?
•
•
•
Middle class crime – by people of ‘high
social status/ respectability’
(Sutherland)
Corporate crimes (business)
White collar (employees)
Level of harm
•
•
•
20 times more harmful than street
crime (Snider)
Harm from faulty goods/safety
infringements/pollution etc
Fraud – far greater than burglary,
mugging, theft (millions) (Levi)
METHODS ISSUE
White collar crime is very hard to
investigate due to its invisible
nature!
Types
•
•
•
•
•
•
Employee theft
Fraud
Computer crime
Tax fraud
Crimes against consumers
Crimes against employees
Why hard to detect/police?
(Croall)
Invisibility
Hard to isolate blame
No direct victim
Law is ambiguous/grey area
Consumers don’t report – trivial
Policed by inspections (not police)
– warnings/fines..not conviction!
• Technical knowledge/complex
16
ahead of police skill set
•
•
•
•
•
•
Studies
Neo-Marxist
Theories (1)
Evaluation
New Criminology (1973)
Taylor, Walton & Young (1973)
• Blended Marxism and Labelling
• See Trad. Marxism as deterministic
• Working class have choice
• Fully social theory of deviance which
looks at structure and individual
Wider origins of act, immediate origins of
act, the act itself, immediate origins of
societal reaction, wider origins of societal
reaction, effects of labelling
•
Marxist Subcultural Theory (see next
slide)
Ethnicity & Crime studies
• Gilroy – ‘black youth crime’ in 1970s =
political response to racism/oppression
• Selective policing – racist
• Hall - 1970s economic crisis = and a
crisis of hegemony = scapegoating of
black youths for problems = moral
panic ‘mugging scare’
(see ethnicity and crime slide also)
•
Ignore female criminality
•
Romanticises w/c criminal as a Robin
Hood ‘stealing from the rich’ (but
left realists note their main victims
are also working class/the poor)
•
They ignore the ‘seriousness’ of
these crimes on w/c victims
•
Now described as ‘Left Idealism’ as
it was over-optimistic about the
oppressed and their ability to
exploit the ‘crisis of hegemony’ and
find a true class consciousness
Look back at your notes on
GRAMSCI
• Hegemony
• Humanistic Marxism
• Voluntarism
17
Subcultural Theories – Brief comparison
Functionalist
Albert Cohen – juvenile
delinquency
• Socialisation – alt.
norms and values
• Status frustration
• Reject mainstream
values
• Gain status & rebellion
Cloward & Ohlin
• Illegitimate
Opportunity
Structures
• Careers in crime
• Networks/role models
Miller
• Focal concerns of
lower class culture
• Source of status/ selfesteem
socialisation
Marxist
•
•
•
•
•
•
CCCS (Birmingham Uni 1970s)
Youth subcultures linked within
a wider structural context
Crisis in hegemony = working
class youths see through R/C
hegemony
Working class youths find
‘magical solutions’ to their
oppression…resistance through
rituals (Stuart Hall/Dick
Hebdige)
Symbolic resistance expressed
through subcultures
Stealing signs and distorting their
meaning (subcultural bricolage)
Phil Cohen
• Skinheads – ultra w/c symbols as
a response to destruction of
working class communities in 60s
Hebdige
• Punk – nihilistic/shock collaging
of symbols and distorted
meanings
Hall
• Rastas/Rudies – challenges to
racist Babylon
Resistance
Labelling
•
Goffman – ‘deviant career’
•
How outsiders/stigmatised are
rejected by society and form
their own ‘subculture’ Becker
•
Self-concept/shared identity –
new ‘master status’
•
Learn culture – novice to
expert = learning meanings and
symbols – gradual adjusting
identity Goffman
•
Deeper level of ‘secondary
deviance’ Lemert
Identity
18
Neo-Marxist
Theories (2)
Studies
Evaluation
New Left Realism (1984)
•
Too much focus on w/c crime –
ignores white collar crime and its
level of harm
•
Over reliance on statistical data
•
Seem to have too much faith in the
police as ‘neutral’
Lea & Young – 3 factors
•
What’s so new? – Merton/Cohen
Relative deprivation
• Feel deprived compared to others
• Advertising/consumerism = pressure
• Lack of means to reach goals =
frustration
• Growth of ‘self-interest which
undermine family values/community
Subculture
• Collective solutions to a group’s
problems
• Anti-mainstream values/culture as
rejected by wider society
• Develop a way of life = street crime
Marginality
• Groups – lack power – no voice
• Violence = political action
• Hostility with police/authority
•
What’s so left? – anti-w/c
•
Underplay the role of the media in
influencing police
•
Ignores the labelling process and its
effect..need to use more qualitative
data to explore motives
•
Deterministic = not everyone who
experience relative poverty =
criminal
•
Too much focus on ‘urban’ crime in
inner cities = makes it seem a
greater problem
19
•
•
•
•
Also see
‘Realism’ cards
later on with
focus on crime
policy/solutions
British Crime Survey 1983 = poor and
marginal = main victims of crime (not
the rich/powerful – “sack Robin Hood!”
UK riots 1981
Crime = a REAL problem
Main criminals = working class/AfroCaribbean youths
Comparing ‘Realist Theories’ of Crime & Deviance
Right Realism
Left Realism
Basic
beliefs
•
•
•
People = naturally selfish
Need control through laws
Rational choice – cost/benefit analysis
•
•
•
Capitalism creates crime
Inequality = frustration/tension
Welfare reduces inequality & problems
Cause of
crime
•
•
•
•
Decline of responsibility
Collapse of community and bonds (Hirschi)
Moral decline (Murray)
Welfare = dependency = laziness = damage
bonds and informal social controls
Underclass – with a way of life ‘dependency
culture’ and role models
Rise of ‘fatherless families’ and no positive role
model/lack of discipline in home
Clarke (rational choice) – crime is a choice
when rewards outweigh costs = low chance of
being caught + punishment does not deter
criminality
Felson – absence of a ‘capable guardian’ – need
informal social control/community to trigger the
‘inner policeman’ – morality/duty
•
Relative deprivation/Marginality/
Subculture (Lea & Young)
Victims of crime are poor/deprived
Unemployment = deprivation/marginality
Racism/inequality = frustration facing
Afro-Caribbean youth
Media images/advertising/consumerism =
frustrated youth
Rise of individualism/selfism = decline of
community/mutual bonds/support/ duty
and responsibility
Decline of informal social control
Wilson – Broken Windows – strengthen
communities, surveillance and chance of being
caught
Neighbourhood Watch/Situational Prevention
Zero tolerance/ASBOs/Tagging/dispersal order
•
•
•
Accountable policing/community links
Reduce inequalities in society
social and community crime prevention –
housing/poverty/jobs/education/job
creation (multi-agency approach)
Ignores wider structural causes, ie) poverty
Assumes rational-choice – not explain violence
Blames crime on socialisation and blame w/c
Charlesworth – Rotherham study – blames
poverty/environment…not values/culture
No empirical evidence of underclass subculture
•
•
Not very new – no insights
Too much focus on ethnic minorities –
borders on racism
How realistic are these policy ideas?
20
Ignores white collar crime
How does this
link back to
Functionalism?
•
•
•
•
Solutions
•
(see policy and
prevention
slides)
•
•
Evaluation
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Studies
Labelling
Theories (1)
•
Note how these
differ to ‘structural
theories’ as they focus
on interaction/social
constructionism
Deviance as relative
• Normal/deviant are defined by society – not fixed
• Becker ‘deviant behaviour is behaviour so labelled’
• Who controls definitions? (not the underdog)
• Distrust official
stats on crime
• Police not neutral
• Use qualitative
methods
(ethnographic)
• Committed
sociology
• Society ‘creates’
deviance – social
constructionism
They do not discuss
economic matters
(capitalism)
Cooley
‘looking
glass self’
•
Origins – Chicago School ‘symbolic
interactionism’ and later phenomenology
Thinkers – Becker/Goffman/Cicourel/Lemert
Social construction of deviance
• Becker – society applies this label to certain
groups..defines their actions as deviant = create
outsiders
• Labels = stereotypes
• Selective policing of W/C, youths, males
• Greater surveillance of powerless groups
• ‘seek and ye shall find’
•
•
•
•
Becker – M/C negotiate with police more
Lambert – policing w/c estates in UK
Cicourel – stereotyping in courtrooms
Kalven & Zaesel – chivalry thesis (females)
Effects of labelling
• Self concept shaped (Cooley) = SFP
• Primary & secondary deviance (Lemert)
• Stigmatisation & societal reaction = increases
• Label = master status (Becker) = identity
• Rejection = outsider = join deviant subculture
• Goffman ‘deviant career’ – learn culture – deeper
• Young – hippy marijuana users – drug use more
important after police sensitisation and negative
societal reaction to hippies…defined as ‘junkies’
Evaluation
• Over romantic – ‘too committed’ and
see criminal as not so bad
• Too much focus on exotic and bizarre
deviance (drugs use etc)
• Ignores origins of deviant acts
• There is absolute deviance
• Labelling is too deterministic –
simplistic – one direction
• Deviants can adopt identity without
being labelled
• Where do the stereotypes come from
and why do the police use some and
not others
• Out of date –police today are trained
to not be prejudiced
• They ignore economic power and the
nature of capitalism in deviance
• Ignore women in research
21
Studies
Labelling
Theories (2)
Deviance Amplification
• This is how efforts to control/limit deviance =
create more deviance
• Look back at Lemert – secondary deviance grows
after sensitisation & societal reaction
Stan Cohen – Folk Devils & Moral Panics (1972)
• Role of media in ‘amplifying’ deviance
• Newspaper reporting of ‘mods and rockers’
fighting and how it created more deviance
• Youths (folk devils) and media promoted a (moral
panic) surrounding them…needed a solution!
• Media exaggerated the problem = public concern
(sensitisation & societal reaction)
• Moral entrepreneurs – magistrates/police/local
council wanted to ‘stamp it out’ = more concern
• More arrests and convictions
• Demonising mods/rockers (folk devils) =
marginalisation = affected their identity/self
concept - ‘fighting was normalised’
Evaluation
•
Ignores the benefits of the mass
media (Functionalist) – public
awareness/crime reduction/
promoting social solidarity and
shared values/public drama linked to
punishment
•
People today are more ‘media savvy’
and sceptical about media stories
• Media = key role in causing public fear/concern
about certain groups (immigrants/single mums etc)
Rule creation
• Becker - Laws = relative = serve interests of
minority - conservative
• Moral entrepreneurs – campaign to change law to
serve their interests/values
• Use of media to stir ‘moral crusades’ to influence
the public’s view and law makers
• The underdog has very little say in the process –
driven by powerful minority, eg) Marijuana Tax
Act 1937 – Reefer Madness campaign
22
2. Gender and Crime
Why women are less criminal than men?
Explanations
In brief
Biology
•
Women are maternal and ‘wired’ differently to men
Sex role theory/Socialisation
•
Girls are raised to be passive/domestic – take less risks
Poverty/marginalisation
•
Working class women are deprived and are promised rewards
for conforming (gender deal and the class deal)
Control theory
•
Women/girls are controlled by men = less opportunity to commit
crime
Women are not less criminal than men
Chivalry Thesis
•
Police and courts are lenient towards women and let them off
= not visible in crime statistics
Liberation Theory
•
Women now are more equal and have more opportunity to
commit crime
23
Studies
Biology
•
Women are biologically less deviant
Sex role
theory/
Socialisation
•
Parsons – women = expressive role –
mum is adult role model
Poverty/
marginalisation
•
Control theory
•
•
•
•
Chivalry Thesis
•
•
•
•
•
Liberation
Theory
•
•
Evaluation
•
Non-sociological – gender is socially constructed
not biological (Oakley)
•
•
•
Socialisation = less traditional expectations now
Post-modernists = decline of trad. Gender role
Rise of the ‘ladette’
Carlen – women encouraged to
conform = class deal/gender deal
But marginal women = rational
decision to do crime to get rewards
denied by class/gender deal failing
•
•
Why do so many women in poverty commit crime?
Ignores ‘non-monetary gain crime’
Heidensohn – patriarchy – control in
domestic sphere/public sphere/work
Supervised/fear of violence/loss of
reputation (Lees) = avoid crime
Avoid urban space at night (Evans)
•
Changing social attitudes – more ‘liberation’
from controls
Men socialised to be lenient and
chivalrous towards women
Pollack – less likely to arrest women
= biased statistics
Women = more cautions than men
Graham & Bowling/Hood findings
Kalven & Zaesel – selective policing
•
•
Women are not treated leniently (Farrington)
Severe offences are punished harshly , ie)
violence = against feminine expectations
Many women = remanded prior to prison
Adler – equal opportunities in
society = same opportunities as men
to commit crime
Adopting male roles/behaviour
patterns = ladette (Denscombe) –
police dealing seriously
•
•
•
Improvements in society mainly benefitted m/c
women
Female offenders are mainly w/c = linked to
poverty (marginalisation/frustration) rather than
24
‘liberation’
2. Gender and Crime
Why men are more criminal than women?
Explanations
In brief
Biology
•
Men are biologically more ‘physical’ and prone to aggression
Sex role theory/Socialisation
•
Boys are socialised to be more aggressive/active/risk-takers
Control theory
•
Less control of boys than girls = more freedom
Masculinity & crime
•
Boys/men have to ‘prove’ they are masculine/macho
Crime as enjoyable
•
Crime is done for pleasure
26
Studies
Sex role
theory/
Socialisation
Control theory
Accomplishing
masculinity
•
•
•
Parsons – male role models
Expectations to be active/aggressive
Male peer group – pressure
•
•
•
Less control by parents
Dominate public space = opportunity
Pressure = macho reputation
•
Messerschmidt – hegemonic
masculinity = ‘real man’
Toughness/competitive/power over
others (like ‘Focal concerns’)
w/c males = frustrated/failure at
school = so crime becomes a way of
‘achieving’ hegemonic masculinity
m/c males = ruthless = white collar
Explains domestic violence/rape
• Does not explain why not all men use crime to
achieve hegemonic masculinity
• Is masculinity a cause of crime or just a way that
crime can be expressed (ie, being tough)
• Some crimes by men are not an expression of
masculinity
Katz – pleasure from thrill of ‘risk’ of
being caught/power over others
Transgression = moral transcendence
(like Matza)
Exercise a form of control in lives
Lyng – Edgework (risky behaviour)
• Mainly a working class issue linked to working
class subculture (Miller)
Winlow – globalisation = decline of
trad. Industry (source of masculinity)
Rise of ‘nocturnal economy’ –
bouncers/body capital/networks
Violence more common – source of
status/overcome boredom
• Only relevant to certain types of men in certain
situations
•
•
•
•
Postmodernity
•
Crime as enjoyable
•
•
•
Globalisation &
decline of
traditional jobs
(see globalisation
slides)
Evaluation
•
•
•
• Changing gender role expectations
27
3. Age and Crime
29
4. Ethnicity and Crime
30
4. Ethnicity and Crime
The trends
Afro-Caribbeans:
• More likely arrested for robbery than other ethnic groups
• More likely to experience the criminal justice system (caution/arrest/court/prison)
Asians:
• More likely to face court rather than caution/go prison if found guilty
• More likely to be arrested for fraud/forgery
The debate for us to consider is this:
“ Are Afro-Caribbeans and Asians (Pakistani/Bangladeshi) actually committing more crime
than other ethnic groups (and if so…WHY?)….or are they being policed more and punished
more than other ethnic groups (racist treatment by CJS) ?”
Look back at this divide….
Consensus Theories
•
•
•
•
Blame criminal for actions
Focus on values/frustration etc
Trust police/courts/media
Have faith in official stats.
Conflict Theories
•
•
•
•
Blame society/ ‘the system’
Focus on poverty/inequality/labelling
Distrust police/courts/media
Official statistics = social constructs
31
Consensus approaches
Studies
Evaluation
32
5. Class and Crime
33
6. Area and Crime
34
7. Mass Media and Crime
35
8. Globalisation and Crime
Includes:
•
•
•
•
•
What is globalisation?
The extent of the global crime economy
Globalisation and :risk consciousness, capitalism and organisation
Green crime
Human rights and state crimes
Think about:
Power, harm and interconnectedness
Crimes of the powerful
•
•
•
•
Nation states/large
corporations power
Cause major harm
Hidden crime
Unpunished crime
Zemiology
•
•
•
Beyond traditional
criminology
How crime is defined
The study of harm
Crimes without frontiers
•
•
Beyond national
boundaries
Global connections =
more opportunities
36
How to focus on this topic..
•
Globalisation is a ‘game-changer’ for the study of crime
•
Globalisation = new forms of crime/new opportunities
•
Global crime = a challenge for ‘nation-states’ and law making/jurisdiction (hard
to police)
•
Global crimes by powerful groups = able to define laws (to serve selves), able
to hide crimes, able to escape punishment
•
Global crimes = high level of harm/damage (to environment or to citizens)
You can use these as strands to return to again and again in
your analysis of them.
These revision cards try to focus on these strands for you.
37
The extent of Global crime
What is globalisation?
• The increasing interconnectedness of
societies
•
‘the widening, deepening and speeding
up of world wide interconnectedness’
(Held)
•
causes: global media, cheap travel, ICT,
migration, business links
•
Crime across national borders
Global risk consciousness (Beck)
•
•
•
•
•
Fears of harm/need protection
Media exaggeration/moral panics
Immigration worries (welfare/jobs)
Led to tighter border controls
9/11 terrorism and consequences
The level of Global crime
• Manuel Castells – global crime
economy = £1 trillion per year
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Arms trafficking
Trafficking nuclear materials
People smuggling/illegal immigrants
Prostitution/slavery
Sex tourism
Cyber crimes (fraud/pornography)
Terrorism
Green crime
Demand (rich west)
Drugs trade
+ Supply (3rd world)
Money laundering
Capitalism and crime
•
•
•
•
Ian Taylor – greater inequality = crime
Businesses (TNCs) switch to low-wage
countries = poverty = insecurity +
frustration = poor people turn to crime
New crim. Opportunities for rich and
powerful = insider trading/tax
avoidance/moving funds
Capitalist employers using foreign
38
labour + breaching laws
New patterns of criminal organisation
GLOCAL organisation
McMafia
•
Hobbs & Dunningham
•
Glenny
•
Global economic changes = local crime
organisation
Individuals with contacts form a ‘hub’
Loose-knit networks – NOT hierarchy
(different to subcultures and
traditional ‘mafia’ style gangs)
Key root = local context
But has global connections
Each locality will affect the nature of
the criminal organisation (global crime
filtered through a local lens)
•
Organisations emerging after fall of
communism in 1989
Deregulation of global markets
Communism falls = free market except
for natural resources, ie) oil
Russian govt controlled these and kept
prices low (communist officials bought
these for next to nothing)
They sold them abroad = high price
Became very rich/powerful – oligarchs
Ex-KGB/former convicts formed
mafias - used to protect this new
wealthy class, ie) Chechen Mafia
Not like Italian mafia – kin/hierarchy
These mafias were purely economic/
driven by greed
Chechen Mafia became a brand –
ruthless/protection rackets
Exported brand elsewhere
Built links around the world
39
•
•
•
•
•
•
Example – old industry shut because of
global competition = nocturnal economy
in Sunderland – bouncers/body capital
Evaluation
• Not clear if these hubs are ‘new’
• Older structures may still run alongside
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Green Crime
1. Global risk society and environment
•
•
•
•
•
Crime against the environment
Planet is a single eco-system (goes
beyond national boundaries)
Examples: air pollution, water pollution,
nuclear disasters
Mainly ‘man-made’ risks today
Beck – manufactured risks are damaging
humanity (made by industry/transport
etc)..go beyond national boudaries
3.Types of Green Crime (Nigel South)
Primary crimes
Direct result of destroying Earth’s resources:
(a) crimes of air pollution
(b) crimes of deforestation
(c) crimes of species decline/animal rights
(d) crime of water pollution
Secondary crimes
Result from flouting the rules to prevent
disasters:
(a) State violence against opp. Groups
eg) French Govt – Greenpeace ship attack
(b) Hazardous waste and organised crime
eg) business dispose of waste illegally, ship
waste to 3rd world/role of ‘ecomafia’ Italy
2. Green Criminology
Traditional criminology
• Harm to the environment may be
defined as ‘legal’ though
• Traditional criminology is tied to
‘criminal law’ and green crime ignored
• Situ & Emmons – see env. Crime as ‘an
unauthorised act or omission that
violates the law’ – a definition that is
limited by the law and who control it
Green criminology (Rob White)
• Focus on harm rather than law
• Some of worst harm = not illegal
• This is transgressive criminology that
moves beyond traditional criminology
• Different countries have diff. laws
• Looks at crimes of the powerful – like
Marxists note invisible/escape punish.
2 views of harm
• Anthropocentric view – human view –
man can exploit envt. (businesses)
• Ecocentric view – humans and envt.
are linked…envt. needs protecting
40
from global capitalism
Examples of ‘Green’ crimes/studies
Evaluation
Bhopal disaster
• 1984 - India – Union Carbide
• Leaking cyanide – safety failure
• 30 tons of gas = 20’000 deaths and 120’000
continue suffering
•  recognises importance of
global issues
Air pollution – from industry/transport
Deforestation – Amazon for beef cattle
Water Pollution – 25 million die each yr from
contaminated water (toxic waste and
untreated sewage)
Day – those who oppose governments
supporting nuclear power/arms are seen as
‘enemies of the state’ (Greenpeace)
Walters– ‘ocean floor has been a radioactive
rubbish dump for decades’
•  shows where law is lacking
where harm is concerned
•  reveals how the powerful
define laws and hide crimes
•  hard to define the
boundaries of ‘green
criminology’
•  definitions are value-laden
with moral criteria used
Bridgland – 2004 Tsunami = barrels of
radioactive waste dumped by European
countries washed up by Somalia
Rosoff – notes how cheap disposing of toxic
waste in 3rd World coiuntries
41
The extent of ‘state crime’
What are state crimes?
•
•
•
Crimes of the powerful - ‘state
organised crime’ (Chambliss)
Green & Ward ‘illegal or deviant
activities perpetrated by, or with
complicity of, state agencies’
The state is able to define what is
criminal
Examples – genocide, torture,
imprisonment without trial, assassination
McLaughlin – 4 categories of state crime
• Political crimes
• Crime by security/police forces
• Economic crimes
• Social/cultural crimes
The extent of state crime
Michalowski & Kramer argue that these
crimes are s0 serious because:
•
•
•
•
The state has a monopoly on violence
– potential to cause much harm
It can conceal it’s crimes and avoid
punishment
It is hard to police the actions of
these states (by other states)
It makes laws and can use them to
control/persecute their enemies
42
The extent of ‘state crime’
Example of state crimes?
•
Cambodia (1975-8) – Pol Pot’s Khmer
Rouge government killed 2 million
people
The Violation of Human Rights
•
•
Natural Rights/Civil Rights
Protection from state
Schwendinger & Schwendinger
• Crime = level of violation of human
rights (harm/zemiology)
• States denying basic human rights
•
Nazi Germany – persecution of Jews,
the Final Solution
•
Guantanamo Bay – US using excessive
methods with terror ‘suspects’
•
•
Iraq – Saddam Hussein attacking the
Kurds in Northern Iraq
•
Vietnam – My Lai massacre of 400
civilians by US troops during Vietnam
war
•
Hiroshima/Nagasaki – Atomic bombs
dropped by US on Japanese cities in
WW2
Crimes include: racism, sexism,
homophobia, economic exploitation
Evaluation
• Cohen – not objective/easy to explore
‘economic exploitation’
• There is limited agreement on what is
classed as a human right
43
How states crimes become possible
States ‘hiding’ their crimes
•
Cohen – state crimes are being
explored more within criminology and
notes how states try to hide/
legitimate their crimes
Denial
• 3 stages – didn’t happen/its not what
it seems/its justified
Neutralisation theory
• Applies Matza’s model for justifying
deviant behaviour
•
Techniques : denial of victim, denial
of injury, denial of responsibility,
condemning the condemners, appeal
to higher loyalty
Negotiation/social construction
State crime as acceptable
•
How normal people perform evil acts
on behalf of states
Kelman & Hamilton – 3 factors that
create ‘crimes of obedience’:
•
•
•
Authorisation – given permission =
duty to obey
Routinisation – role/detached
Dehumanisation – enemy seen as subhuman (linked to propaganda)
Dehumanisation and modernisation
•
•
Science and technology help states to
commit these crimes (Bauman)
They dehumanise and turn mass
murder in a routine/admin task
44
Globalisation & Crime (bring together)
Evaluation
• Issue of defining crime
• Objectivity/values
• Political flavour
(committed sociology)
STATE CRIME
•
•
•
•
•
•
GLOBAL
CRIME
Levels/types(Castells)
Risk consciousness
Global capitalism
Examine
Globalisation
& Crime
What are state crimes?
The level of harm
Examples
Violations of human rights
How states conceal crimes (denial)
How states make such crime acceptable
Organisations
• Glocal
• McMafia
GREEN CRIME
•
•
•
•
•
Global risk
consciousness
Green criminology +
harm
Types of green crime
Examples
Evaluation
45
9. Policing & Courts
46