Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Chapter 15
Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Abnormality, Therapy and Social Issues

On the surface it would appear that there is normal and
abnormal behavior, and the distinction between normal and
“weird” is clear to everyone.

But when we go deeper into the issue of normal versus
abnormal, we start to see that behavior must be interpreted
in its context. Normal is a matter of place and time as well
as mental state and action.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Module 15.1

Abnormal Behavior: An Overview
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Psychopathology



Most of us feel sad, anxious, or angry occasionally.
Our moods change, we have or develop bad habits, and we
have “funny” beliefs.
Mental health diagnoses are reserved for people with
problems that seriously interfere with their lives.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Defining Abnormal Behavior

There is probably no definition of “abnormal” that can’t be
questioned.
 If we use the standard of “subjective feelings of distress”
than anyone who thinks they have a problem
automatically qualifies.
 And if someone behaves in bizarre and dangerous ways,
but insists that they are A-OK, many people who are in
fact suffering from mental illness could not be diagnosed
and treated.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Defining Abnormal Behavior


If we say that behavior that could result in suffering or death
is a sign of mental illness, heroic deeds would be a bona
fide symptom.
If we say that behavior that is very different from the usual
is a sign of a psychological disorder, very depressed people
would be diagnosed, but so would very happy people.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Defining Abnormal Behavior

Cultural influences on abnormality
 Each era and society has had its own interpretations of
abnormal behavior. Culture-specific disorders are found
all over the planet.
 Demonic possession has been a common diagnosis
in some societies for thousands of years.
 Brain fag syndrome is a frequent complaint of West
African students.
 Running amok consists of episodes of indiscriminant
violent behavior in young Southeast Asian men.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Defining Abnormal Behavior

Cultural influences on abnormality
 An American example: Multiple Personality Disorder
 The “split personality” syndrome, this is now referred
to as dissociative identity disorder.
 There is alternation between two or more
personalities.
 Each has its own disposition, behavior, and name, as
if each were a separate person.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Defining Abnormal Behavior

Cultural influences on abnormality
 This was a very rare disorder until the 1950’s, when a
few cases received widespread publicity.
 By the early 1990s there were many cases of DID
reported.
 Some observers began to claim that the disorder did not
exist at all.
 It is most likely that it was being promoted by over eager
therapists.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Defining Abnormal Behavior

The biopsychosocial model
 The predominant view in Western cultures today uses
the biopsychosocial model to understand mental illness.
 Biological roots - include genetic factors, injury,
disease processes, and the like which result in
abnormal brain development, damage, imbalances of
neurotransmitters and hormones, all of which can
result in abnormal behavior.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Defining Abnormal Behavior

The biopsychosocial model
 Psychological roots – an individual’s life history and
experiences contribute to his or her ability to cope and
degree of vulnerability to stress.
 Social and cultural context – people are greatly
influenced by how other people act toward them and the
expectations people hold for them.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Classifying Psychological Disorders

The DSM-IV
 The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders
 This manual has been created to establish uniform
definitions and standards for diagnosis.
 It is now in its fourth edition.
 It lists acceptable labels for all psychological
disorders.
 It lists symptoms and criteria for making diagnoses
and contains information on differential diagnosis –
how to distinguish a particular disorder from others
that are similar to it.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Classifying Psychological Disorders

The DSM-IV
 Diagnosis is made along five axes (lists).
 A person can have one or more diagnoses on a given
axis, or none at all.
 Clinical disorders are diagnosed on Axis I. These are
disorders that involve a deterioration of functioning.
 Most common psychological disorders are listed on Axis
I.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Table 15.1 Some major categories of psychological disorders according to Axis I of
DSM-IV.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Classifying Psychological Disorders

The DSM-IV
 Axis II is reserved for personality disorders and
mental retardation.
 These are disorders that persist throughout life.
 A personality disorder is a maladaptive, inflexible way of
dealing with situations and people.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Table 15.2 Some major categories of psychological disorders according to Axis II of
DSM-IV.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Classifying Psychological Disorders

The DSM-IV
 Axis III is for general medical conditions that may
influence the person’s mood or behavior.
 Axis IV is for psychosocial and environmental
problems that may increase the person’s level of stress.
 Axis V is a 1-90 scale called the global assessment of
functioning. The lower the number assigned by the
assessing clinician, the less likely it is that the person
being diagnosed is able to function without treatment
and support.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Classifying Psychological Disorders

Differential diagnosis
 As in medicine, diverse mental health disorders often
have similar or overlapping symptoms.
 Psychologists and psychiatrists are trained to make
differential diagnoses.
 They look at all the disorders with similar symptoms
that listed in the DSM-IV as well as disorders that are
purely medical but affect mood and behavior.
 They either rule these disorders out or revise their
original diagnosis based on the information they have
gathered.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Classifying Psychological Disorders

Criticisms of DSM-IV
 The distinction between normal and abnormal can seem
arbitrary at times (5 months of a problem is not a
disorder, but 6 months is).
 Are criminal behaviors (child molesting) really a sign of
mental illness, or some other serious problem?
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Classifying Psychological Disorders

Criticisms of DSM-IV
 Is it an adjustment to a life stressor, or is it a mental
illness?
 Statistics on prevalence of disorders are uncertain and
at times seem inflated.
 To what extent is the situation the problem, rather than
the person?
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Figure 15.1 According to one extensive survey, about half the people in the United
States will suffer at least one psychological disorder at some time. (The figures for the
individual conditions do not add up to the total percentage for “any disorder” because
some people have more than one disorder.) However, the exact percentages depend
on where one draws the dividing line between “normal” and “abnormal.” (Based on
data of Kessler et al., 1994
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Psychological Disorders

There is a stigma associated with receiving a mental health
diagnosis.

Yet it is possible that as many as 50% of the population has
a diagnosable mental illness at some time in their lives
(according to the standards of the DSM-IV).

If this is true, it is evidence that people with psychological
disorders are not very different from the rest of us. In fact,
maybe we are those people.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Module 15.2

Psychotherapy: An Overview
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Psychotherapy


Psychotherapy is a treatment of psychological disorders by
methods that include an ongoing relationship between a
trained therapist and a client.
Psychotherapy is utilized for a wide variety of disorders.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Psychotherapy


Psychotherapy is sought by or prescribed for a diverse
range of clients, from those with very serious emotional
disturbance, to the “worried well” and those who are
basically well but wish to function more effectively.
There are many techniques of psychotherapy, but all of
them seem to depend in large part on the client’s motivation
to improve.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Schools of Psychotherapy

Psychoanalysis
 The psychodynamic therapies are based on the theories
of Sigmund Freud.
 These methods try to relate personality to the
interplay of conflicting forces in the person.
 The individual may be unaware of some of these
forces and motives.
 Psychoanalysis is the oldest “talk” therapy. It
attempts to bring unconscious thoughts and emotions
to awareness, and help people understand their own
thoughts and actions.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Schools of Psychotherapy

Psychoanalysis
 The psychodynamic therapies
 Psychoanalysis uses free association and
transference to bring unconscious material to
consciousness.
 This in turn produces catharsis, the release of pentup emotions associated with unconscious thoughts
and memories.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Schools of Psychotherapy

Psychoanalysis
 The psychodynamic therapies
 In free association, the client thinks about a symptom
or problem and then says everything that comes to
mind related to it.
 This process is supposed to uncover hidden thoughts
and feelings.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Schools of Psychotherapy

Psychoanalysis
 The psychodynamic therapies
 Transference refers to the client’s experience of
feelings previously associated with a parent or other
important figure that are “transferred” to the therapist.
 Psychoanalysts and other psychodynamic therapists
make active interpretations of the client’s statements.
 If a client disagrees with the therapist’s
interpretations, they may label this as resistance, a
continued repression that interferes with therapy.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Schools of Psychotherapy

Behavior therapy
 Behaviorists believe that human behavior is learned and
can be unlearned. Behavioral therapy is based on this
principle.
 Treatment begins with specific behavioral goals, such
as “stay in seat for entire class period” or “spend a
maximum of X dollars a week.”
 The treatment plan entails how the client will learn to
behave in ways that will help him or her achieve the
goals.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Figure 15.4 A child can be trained not to wet the bed by using classical conditioning
techniques. At first, the sensation of a full bladder (the CS) produces no response,
and the child wets the bed. This causes a vibration or other alarm (the UCS), and the
child wakes up (the UCR). By associating the sensation of a full bladder with a
vibration, the child soon begins waking up to the sensation of a full bladder alone and
will not wet the bed.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Schools of Psychotherapy

Therapies that focus on thoughts and beliefs
 Some therapies focus on what is in the client’s mind right
now instead of on thoughts and feelings from the past.
 Cognitive therapy seeks to improve people’s
functioning by changing how they think and what they
believe about situations.
 Rational-emotive therapy assumes that thoughts
precede emotions, and that unpleasant feelings are a
result of irrational thoughts.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Schools of Psychotherapy

Therapies that focus on thoughts and beliefs
 Cognitive-behavior therapy sets clear goals for
changing behavior (like a behavioral therapist).
 The therapist puts more emphasis on also changing the
person’s interpretation of thoughts and events (like a
cognitive therapist).
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Schools of Psychotherapy

Humanistic therapy
 Humanistic therapists believe that people naturally strive
to achieve their full potentials.
 The source of psychological distress is perceived
incongruence between the way an individual’s selfconcept and his or her ideal image of self.
 The most common humanistic therapy is personcentered (nondirective/client-centered) therapy.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Schools of Psychotherapy

Humanistic therapy
 Person-centered therapy
 The therapist listens to the client non-judgmentally.
 The therapist also provides unconditional positive
regard.
 Unconditional positive regard is an ideal state, similar
to the regard that a loving parent has for a child.
 The therapist tries to be genuine, empathetic and
caring, and tries not to interpret the client’s thoughts
or feelings or offer advice.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Table 15.3 Comparison of five types of psychotherapy
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Concept Check:
In which type of therapy would the therapist be most likely to
interpret a thought, feeling or dream?
Psychodynamic or psychoanalysis
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Concept Check:
In which therapies are treatment goals stated in clear and
specific terms?
Behavioral and cognitive-behavioral
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Concept Check:
In which therapy is the client viewed as essentially good
and wishing to achieve full potential in life?
Person-centered (humanistic)
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Schools of Psychotherapy

Family systems therapy
 Family systems therapy treats the person in the context
of the family.
 The underlying assumption of family systems is that
an individual’s problems arise in a family setting.
 Therefore the best way to deal with them is to change
and improve family relationships and communication.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Schools of Psychotherapy

Other trends in psychotherapy
 Eclectic therapists do not use any single method
exclusively, but a combination of approaches.
 Brief therapy models are gaining in popularity.
 In brief or time-limited therapy, the therapist and client
agree to a certain length, number of meetings and
expectations and goals for the treatment.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Schools of Psychotherapy

Other trends in psychotherapy
 Group therapy involves the treatment of many clients
by one or two therapists on an ongoing basis.
 Group therapy is less expensive and allows the clients to
help each other with advice and feedback.
 Self-help groups work in a similar way but there is no
therapist involved.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Psychotherapy

How effective is psychotherapy?
 According to some research studies, many people start
to feel better anyway without psychotherapy
(spontaneous remission).
 Meta-analysis of many studies of psychotherapy
suggests that a majority of people do show
improvements after therapy.
 Keep in mind the “file-drawer” effect when considering
the results of meta-analyses.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Psychotherapy

How effective is psychotherapy?
 A recent study by Consumer Reports of mental health
treatment and psychotherapy supported the conclusion
that most mental health treatment is helpful in improving
the psychological and emotional well being of clients.
 No one method of therapy stands out as better than the
others.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Psychotherapy

How effective is psychotherapy?
 Although it is a complex and tricky business to evaluate
the effectiveness of psychotherapeutic treatment, there
are distinct advantages to seeking professional mental
health care.
 A trained clinician keeps confidentiality, uses methods
with some demonstrated level of effectiveness, and can
make referrals to other professionals if he or she
suspects that this may be warranted (for example, if a
medical problem may exist).
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Psychotherapy

How effective is psychotherapy?
 Similarities among psychotherapeutic methods
 The creation of a therapeutic alliance that offers
social support for the client.
 The opportunity for the client to engage in selfexamination (this is not an advantage cross-culturally,
though).
 The opportunity to receive encouragement from the
therapist on a regular basis.
 There is an affirmation of the client’s desire to change
and improve.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Psychotherapy

How effective is psychotherapy?
 Advice for potential clients
 Ask the local Mental Health Association for some
recommendations.
 You may feel most comfortable with a therapist from a
cultural background that is similar to yours.
 If spirituality or religion is important to you, you may
want to find a therapist who sympathizes with your
beliefs.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Psychotherapy

How effective is psychotherapy?
 As with any other “remedy” be skeptical of
overconfidence and claims of amazing results.
 Expect at least some small improvement within a couple
of months of starting, and don’t be afraid to ask for your
therapist’s input if this doesn’t happen.
 Be an active participant in your own treatment – nobody
“fixes” you, rather, you receive help in changing your
own life.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Finding the Best Therapy

Research suggests that the various methods of therapy and
professionals who provide services are about equally
effective. There is no “best” type of therapist or best
method.

But no one way of doing psychotherapy is right for every
client. You need to use your knowledge to “shop” for the
therapist who will work best with you.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Module 15.3

Social and Legal Aspects of Treatment
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Deinstitutionalization


Deinstitutionalization refers to the trend over the second
part of the twentieth century of removing patients from
mental hospitals.
There are alternatives to long-term inpatient care.
Unfortunately, many patients were discharged without the
benefit of adequate planning for their future care.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Deinstitutionalization

As a result of this lack of foresight, many former mental
hospital patients are now:
 Homeless
 Placed in nursing homes
 Imprisoned
 Dead
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Involuntary Commitment and Treatment


In the case of people with severe mental health problems,
the right to live freely among others can come into conflict
with the rights of others.
If a person’s mental state represents a serious danger to
self, others or causes the individual to be completely unable
to care for him or herself, serious ethical issues are raised.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Involuntary Commitment and Treatment

There are many potential problems in the process of
involuntary commitment:
 Not all seriously mentally ill patients realize that they are
ill.
 People have been committed to mental hospitals just to
be put “out of the way.”
 It is extremely difficult to determine which patients
should be committed.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Involuntary Commitment and Treatment


Usually the opinion of one or more trained professionals
plus court action must be obtained in order to commit a
person with a mental illness.
Even after commitment, the patient is always given the right
to refuse specific treatments.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Figure 15.8a People with schizophrenia who refuse drug therapy impress their
physicians as being seriously disturbed. Patients who refuse drugs rate themselves
as dissatisfied with their physicians and their treatments. (a) Physicians’ ratings of
their patients. High scores indicate greater disturbance. Those refusing treatment
showed greater indications of disturbance on most scales.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Figure 15.8b People with schizophrenia who refuse drug therapy impress their physicians as
being seriously disturbed. Patients who refuse drugs rate themselves as dissatisfied with their
physicians and their treatments. (a) Physicians’ ratings of their patients. High scores indicate
greater disturbance. Those refusing treatment showed greater indications of disturbance on
most scales.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
The Duty to Protect

The Tarasoff case
 The Tarasoff case established that a therapist who
knows that a client has harmful intent towards an
identified person or persons has a duty to break
confidentiality with the client to protect the endangered
person.
 Judging dangerousness is not a clear-cut matter and the
therapist must often weigh carefully the factors. Breach
of confidentiality is a serious violation of the patient’s
rights.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
The Duty to Protect

The insanity defense
 Insanity is a legal term, not a psychological or medical
one.
 Its definition is more judicial than scientific.
 Bizarre crimes in and of themselves do not
demonstrate insanity.
 The most famous definition of insanity is based on the
M’Naghten rule, from 19th Century British law.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
The Duty to Protect

The insanity defense
 The M’Naghten rule
 The gist of the law states that in order to be judged
insane at the time of a crime, a people must be so
disordered that they cannot understand what they are
doing.
 Some legal authorities felt that this rule was too
narrow and rigid.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
The Duty to Protect

The insanity defense
 Under 1% of accused felons plead insanity.
 The insanity defense is extremely rare.
 These cases receive a great deal of media attention.
 If the person is found not guilty by reason of insanity,
they will likely be institutionalized for a very long time.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Preventing Mental Illness

Some psychologists, especially community psychologists
have started to create movement towards preventing
mental illness.
 Community psychologists focus on the needs of groups
rather than individuals.
 They look at various routes to circumventing mental
illness or lessening its damaging effects.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Preventing Mental Illness



Prevention methods are aimed at stopping mental illness
before it begins.
Intervention involves identifying a disorder in its early
stages and relieving it.
Maintenance is taking steps to prevent an illness from
becoming more serious.
“An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.”
-- Old aphorism
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Preventing Mental Illness

Some steps that would help in prevention efforts:
 Ban use of environmental toxins
 Promote good prenatal care and education
 Promote full employment
 Provide high quality and affordable child care
 Improve educational opportunities
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Concept Check:

Can you think of some other steps that would promote good
mental health and improve psychological functioning overall
in our society?
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 15: Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues
Mental Illness: Science and Society

The issues we have examined in this module are complex
and involve scientific, social and ethical dimensions.

Even if you do not grow up to be a psychologist, as a citizen
of our country it is in your best interest to be informed about
the social and legal aspects of mental illness and the
benefits to society of promoting good mental health.