Climate and Biodiversity
Chapter 7
Section 7-1
WHAT FACTORS INFLUENCE
CLIMATE?
The earth has many different
climates
• Weather is a set of physical conditions such as
temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind,
speed, cloud cover, and other factors in a given
area for short periods of time.
• Climate is an area’s general pattern of
atmospheric conditions over periods ranging
from 30 to thousands of years.
• Earth’s current major climate zones and ocean
currents are key components of the earth’s
natural capital.
The earth has many different
climates
• Climate varies in different parts of the
earth primarily because global air
circulation and ocean currents distribute
heat and precipitation unevenly between
the tropics and other parts of the world.
• Three major factors determine how air
circulates in the lower atmosphere:
– Uneven heating of earth’s surface by the sun.
– Rotation of the earth on its axis.
– Properties of air, water, and land.
Earth’s climate zones, major ocean
currents, and upwelling areas
Arctic
Circle
Tropic of
Cancer
Tropic of
Capricorn
Antarctic
Circle
Polar (ice)
Subarctic (snow)
Warm temperate
Dry
Cool temperate
Tropical
Highland
Major upwelling
zones
Warm ocean current
River
Cold ocean current
Fig. 7-2, p. 123
The earth has many different
climates
• Prevailing winds blowing over the oceans produce mass
movements of surface water called ocean currents.
Major ocean currents help to redistribute heat from the
sun, influencing climate and vegetation, especially near
coastal areas.
• El Niño–Southern Oscillation, or ENSO—is an example
of the interaction of land and air.
– Large-scale weather phenomenon occurring every few years
when prevailing winds in the tropical Pacific Ocean weaken and
change direction.
– Above-average warming of Pacific waters can affect populations
of marine species by changing the distribution of plant nutrients.
Global air circulation
Moist air rises,
cools, and releases
moisture as rain
Polar cap
The highest solar
energy input is at
the equator.
Cold
deserts
60°N
Evergreen
coniferous
Westerlies Temperate
forest
deciduous
30°N
forest and grassland
Northeast trades
Hot desert
Tropical deciduous forest
Solar
energy
Equator 0°
Tropical rain forest
Air cools and
descends at lower
latitudes.
Warm air rises
and moves
toward the poles.
Tropical deciduous
forest
Hot desert
Southeast trades
30°S
deciduous
Westerlies Temperate
forest and grassland
60°S
Cold
deserts
Air cools and
descends at
lower latitudes.
Polar cap
Fig. 7-3, p. 123
Energy is transferred by
convection in the atmosphere
LOW
PRESSURE
Cool,
dry air
HIGH
PRESSURE
Heat released
radiates to space Condensatio
n and
precipitation
Falls, is
compressed,
warms
Warm,
dry air
HIGH
PRESSURE
Rises,
expands,
cools
Flows toward low
pressure, picks up
moisture and heat
Moist surface
warmed by sun
Hot,
wet air
LOW
PRESSURE
Fig. 7-4, p. 124
Deep and shallow ocean
currents
Warm, less
salty, shallow
current
Cold, salty,
deep current
Fig. 7-5, p. 124
Greenhouse gases warm the
lower atmosphere
• Greenhouse gases absorb and release
heat, which warms the atmosphere,
influencing the earth’s average
temperatures and its climates.
• The major greenhouse gases are:
– Water vapor (H2O).
– Carbon dioxide (CO2).
– Methane (CH4).
– Nitrous oxide (N2O).
Greenhouse gases warm the
lower atmosphere
• The natural greenhouse effect is a
warming of the lower atmosphere and the
earth’s surface.
– Some of the energy that the earth’s surface
absorbs from the sun is radiated into the
atmosphere as heat.
– Greenhouse gases absorbed some of this
heat which warms the lower atmosphere,
causing the greenhouse effect.
The earth’s surface features
affect local climates
• Heat is absorbed and released more slowly
by water than by land, creating land and
sea breezes.
• Mountains interrupt the flow of prevailing
surface winds and the movement of storms.
• High mountains create the rain shadow
effect.
• Cities with bricks, asphalt, and traffic create
distinct microclimates.
The rain shadow effect
Prevailing winds
pick up moisture
from an ocean.
On the windward side
of a mountain range,
air rises, cools, and
releases moisture.
On the leeward side of the
mountain range, air
descends, warms, and
releases little moisture,
causing rain shadow effect.
Fig. 7-6, p. 125
Section 7-2
HOW DOES CLIMATE AFFECT
THE NATURE AND LOCATION
OF BIOMES?
Climate helps to determine
where organisms can live
• Average annual precipitation and temperature lead to
the formation of tropical (hot), temperate (moderate),
and polar (cold) deserts, grasslands, and forests.
• Climate and vegetation vary with latitude and
elevation.
• Biomes are large regions, each characterized by
certain types of climate and dominant plant life.
• Biomes are not uniform. They consist of a mosaic of
patches, each with somewhat different biological
communities but with similarities typical of the biome.
Average precipitation and temperature
are determining factors
Cold
Arctic tundra
Evergreen coniferous forest
Cold desert
Temperate
desert
Temperate deciduous forest
Chaparral
Hot
Wet
Temperate
grassland
Tropical desert
Tropical rain forest
Dry
Tropical grassland (savanna)
Fig. 7-7, p. 127
Biomes and climate both change
with elevation and latitude
Elevation Mountain ice
and snow
Tundra (herbs,
lichens,
mosses)
Coniferous
Forest
Latitude (south to north)
Deciduous
Forest
Tropical
Forest
Tropical
Forest
Deciduous
Forest
Coniferous
Forest
Tundra
Polar
(herbs,
ice and
lichens, snow
mosses)
Fig. 7-8, p. 127
The earth’s major biomes
Tropic of
Cancer
High mountains
Equator
Polar ice
Arctic tundra (cold grassland)
Temperate grassland
Tropical grassland (savanna)
Chaparral
Tropic of
Capricorn
Coniferous forest
Temperate deciduous forest
Temperate rain forest
Tropical rain forest
Tropical dry forest
Desert
Fig. 7-9, p. 128
There are three major types of
desert
• Deserts have low annual precipitation often
scattered unevenly throughout the year. The
sun warms the ground during the day and
evaporates water; heat is quickly lost at night.
• Tropical deserts are hot and dry most of the
year, with few plants.
• Temperate deserts have high daytime
temperatures in summer and low in winter.
Sparse vegetation is mostly cacti and other
succulents.
There are three major types of
desert
• Cold deserts have sparse vegetation, cold
summers and precipitation is low.
• Desert soils take from decades to centuries to
recover from disturbances such as off-road
vehicle travel because deserts have slow plant
growth, low species diversity, slow nutrient
cycling, and very little water.
Typical variations in annual temperature
(red) and precipitation (blue) in deserts
Stepped Art
Fig. 7-10, p. 129
There are three major types of
grasslands
• Grasslands occur mostly in the interiors of
continents in areas too moist for deserts
and too dry for forests.
• Grasslands are not taken over by shrubs
and trees because of seasonal droughts,
grazing by large herbivores, and
occasional fires.
There are three major types of
grasslands
• The three main types of grassland:
– Tropical (e.g. savanna): Savanna contains widely
scattered clumps of trees and is usually warm yearround with alternating dry and wet seasons
– Temperate (e.g. short-grass and tall-grass
prairies):Temperate grassland winters can be very cold,
summers are hot and dry, and annual precipitation is
fairly sparse and falls unevenly through the year.
– Cold (e.g. cold grasslands or arctic tundra): Cold
grasslands, or arctic tundra, are bitterly cold, treeless
plains.
• Permafrost forms when frozen underground soil exists for more
than two consecutive years.
Typical variations in annual temperature
(red) and precipitation (blue) in grasslands
Stepped Art
Fig. 7-11, p. 131
Intensively cultivated cropland
Some components and interactions
in an arctic tundra ecosystem
Long-tailed jaeger
Grizzly bear
Caribou
Snowy owl
Horned lark
Mosquito
Arctic
fox
Willow ptarmigan
Dwarf
willow
Lemming
Bacteri
a
Fungi
Mountain
cranberry
Moss campion
Producer
to primary
consumer
Primary to
secondary
consumer
Secondary to
higher-level
consumer
All producers
and consumers
to
Fig. 7-13, p. 133
There are three major types of
forests
• Forests are lands dominated by trees.
• The three main types of forest:
– Tropical: Found near the equator with a warm
and wet climate; ideal for a wide variety of plants
and animals.
• Dominated by broadleaf evergreen plants keep most
of their leaves year-round. There is little vegetation on
the forest floor because the dense tree-top canopy
blocks most light from reaching the ground.
• Very high net primary productivity and an incredible
high level of biological diversity.
There are three major types of
forests
• Cover about 2% of the earth’s land surface but are
estimated to contain at least 50% of the earth’s known
terrestrial plant and animal species
– Temperate:
• Cool temperatures slow decomposition, so have a
thick layer of slowly decaying leaf litter which is a
storehouse of nutrients
– Cold: northern coniferous (cone-bearing) and
boreal.
• Winters are long and extremely cold. Plant diversity is
low, decomposition is slow.
Typical variations in annual temperature
(red) and precipitation (blue) in forests
Stepped Art
Fig. 7-14, p. 134
Specialized plant and animal niches
are stratified in a tropical rain forest
45
Emergent
layer
Harpy
eagle
40
35
Toco
toucan
Canopy
Height (meters)
30
25
20
Understory
Wooly
opossum
15
10
Brazilian
tapir
5
Black-crowned
antpitta
Shrub layer
Ground
layer
0
Fig. 7-15, p. 135
Components and interactions in a temperate
deciduous forest ecosystem in North America
Broad-winged
hawk
Hairy
woodpecke
r
White oak
White-footed
mouse
Metallic
woodboring
beetle and
larvae
White-tailed
deer
Shagbark
hickory
May beetle
Mountain
winterberr
y
Black
racer
snake
Long-tailed
weasel
Fungi
Wood frog
Bacteria
Producer
to primary
consumer
Primary to
secondary
consumer
Secondary to
higher-level
consumer
All producers
and consumers
to decomposers
Fig. 7-16, p. 136
Mountains play important
ecological roles
• Mountains are steep or high-elevation lands where
dramatic changes in altitude, slope, climate, soil, and
vegetation take place over a very short distance.
• About 1.2 billion people (17% of the world’s
population) live in mountain ranges or their foothills,
and 4 billion people (57% of the world’s population)
depend on mountain systems for all or some of their
water.
• Many mountains are islands of biodiversity
surrounded by a sea of lower-elevation landscapes
transformed by human activities.
Mountains play important
ecological roles
• Important ecological roles include:
– Contain the majority of the world’s trees
– Provide habitats for endemic species
– Have sanctuaries for species that can migrate
and surviving in higher altitudes if they are
driven from lowlands by human activities or a
warming climate..
• Mountains play a critical role in the
hydrologic cycle by serving as major
storehouses of water.
Section 7-3
How have human activities
affected the world’s terrestrial
ecosystems?
Humans have disturbed most of
the earth’s land
• About 62% of the world’s major terrestrial
ecosystems are being degraded or used
unsustainably.
Major human impacts on
terrestrial ecosystems
Natural Capital Degradation
Major Human Impacts on Terrestrial Ecosystems
Deserts
Grasslands
Large desert cities
Conversion to
cropland
Destruction of soil
and underground
habitat by off-road
vehicles
Release of CO2
to atmosphere
from burning
grassland
Depletion of
groundwater
Land disturbance
and pollution from
mineral extraction
Overgrazing
by livestock
Oil production
and off-road
vehicles in
arctic tundra
Forests
Clearing for
agriculture,
livestock grazing,
timber, and urban
development
Conversion of
diverse forests to
tree plantations
Damage from offroad vehicles
Pollution of forest
streams
Mountains
Agriculture
Timber and
mineral extraction
Hydroelectric dams
and reservoirs
Air pollution blowing in from
urban areas and power plants
Soil damage from off-road
vehicles
Fig. 7-18, p. 138
Natural Capital Degradation
Major Human Impacts on Terrestrial Ecosystems
Deserts
Grasslands
Large desert cities
Conversion to
cropland
Destruction of soil
and underground
habitat by off-road
vehicles
Release of CO2
to atmosphere
from burning
grassland
Depletion of
groundwater
Land disturbance
and pollution from
mineral extraction
Overgrazing
by livestock
Oil production
and off-road
vehicles in
arctic tundra
Forests
Clearing for
agriculture,
livestock grazing,
timber, and urban
development
Conversion of
diverse forests to
tree plantations
Damage from offroad vehicles
Pollution of forest
streams
Mountains
Agriculture
Timber and
mineral extraction
Hydroelectric dams
and reservoirs
Air pollution blowing in from
urban areas and power plants
Soil damage from off-road
vehicles
Stepped Art
Fig. 7-18, p. 138
Section 7-4
WHAT ARE THE MAJOR TYPES
OF AQUATIC SYSTEMS?
Most of the earth is covered
with water
• About 71% of the earth’s surface is
covered with salty ocean water.
• One global ocean, divided it into four large
areas by geographers.
– Atlantic Ocean.
– Pacific Ocean.
• The largest; contains more than half of the earth’s
water and covers one-third of the earth’s surface.
– Arctic Ocean.
– Indian Ocean.
The ocean planet
Ocean hemisphere
Land–ocean hemisphere
Fig. 7-19, p. 139
Most of the earth is covered
with water
• Aquatic life zones are the aquatic counterparts
of biomes
• Distribution of aquatic organisms is determined
largely by the water’s salinity—the amounts of
various salts such as sodium chloride (NaCl)
dissolved in a given volume of water.
• Zones are classified into two major types:
– Saltwater or marine life zones: Oceans and their
bays, estuaries, and other coastal systems.
– Freshwater life zones: Lakes, rivers, streams, and
inland wetlands.
Most of the earth is covered
with water
• Four major types of aquatic organisms:
– Plankton are weakly swimming and freefloating. Types include:
• Phytoplankton: photosynthesizers, includes many
types of algae.
• Zooplankton: plankton that feed on other plankton.
• Ultraplankton: huge populations of photosynthetic
bacteria.
– Nekton are strong-swimming consumers such
as fish, turtles, and whales.
Most of the earth is covered
with water
– Benthos are bottom dwellers. Examples
include:
• Oysters, which anchor themselves to one spot.
• Clams and some worms, which burrow into the
bottom.
• Lobsters and crabs, which walk on the sea floor.
– Decomposers (mostly bacteria), which break
down organic compounds in the dead bodies
and wastes of aquatic organisms.
Most of the earth is covered
with water
• Key factors determining the type and
number of organisms at various depths
include:
– Water temperature.
– Dissolved oxygen content.
– Availability of food.
– Availability of light and nutrients required for
photosynthesis.
Section 7-5
WHY ARE MARINE AQUATIC
SYSTEMS IMPORTANT AND
HOW HAVE WE AFFECTED
THEM?
Marine ecosystems
Oceans provide vital ecological
and economic services
• Enormous reservoirs of biodiversity with three
major life zones: The coastal zone, open sea
and ocean bottom.
• The coastal zone
– Warm, nutrient-rich, shallow water that extends from
the high-tide mark on land to the edge of the
continental shelf.
– Makes up less than 10% of the world’s ocean area
while containing 90% of all marine species and is the
site of most large commercial marine fisheries.
– Have high net primary productivity due to ample
sunlight and plant nutrients that flow from land.
Major life zones and vertical
zones in an ocean
Depth in
meters
0
50
Euphotic
Zone
Estuarine
Zone
100
Continental
shelf
200
500
Bathyal Zone
1,000
Photosynthesis
Open
Sea
Sea level
Twilight
High tide
Coastal
Low tide
Zone
1,500
2,000
Abyssal
Zone
3,000
4,000
Darkness
Water temperature drops
rapidly between the
euphotic zone and the
abyssal zone in an area
called the thermocline .
5,000
10,000
0
5
10
15
20
Water temperature (°C)
25
30
Fig. 7-21, p. 141
Estuaries and coastal wetlands
are highly productive
• Estuaries are where rivers meet the sea, forming
partially enclosed bodies of water where
seawater mixes with freshwater as well as
nutrients and pollutants from streams and runoff
from the land.
• Associated coastal wetlands are areas covered
with water all or part of the year.
– Coastal wetlands are in temperate zones.
– Mangrove forests are in tropical zones.
• Some of the earth’s most productive
ecosystems.
Estuaries and coastal wetlands
are highly productive
• Sea grass beds consist of plants that grow underwater in
shallow marine and estuarine areas along most
continental coastlines.
• Coastal aquatic systems provide vital ecological and
economic services such as:
– Help maintain water quality in tropical coastal zones by filtering
toxic pollutants, excess plant nutrients, and sediments, and by
absorbing other pollutants.
– Provide food, habitats, and nursery sites for a variety of aquatic
and terrestrial species.
– Reduce storm damage and coastal erosion by absorbing waves
and storing excess water produced by storms and tsunamis.
Estuary in Madagascar
Coral reefs are storehouses of
biodiversity
• Underwater structures that are built primarily of
limestone and form in the clear, warm coastal
waters of the tropics and subtropics.
• Highly productive ecosystems that are dazzling
centers of biodiversity.
• Reefs form from massive colonies of polyps that
secrete limestone.
• Coral reefs result from a mutually beneficial
relationship between the polyps and singlecelled algae called zooxanthellae that live in the
tissues of the polyps.
Coral reefs are storehouses of
biodiversity
• Ecological services provided by coral reefs
include:
– Act as natural barriers that help to protect
15% of the world’s coastlines from erosion
caused by waves and storms.
– Provide habitats for about 25% of all marine
organisms.
– Produce about 10% of the global fish catch.
– Provide fishing and ecotourism jobs for some
of the world’s poorest countries.
Coral reefs are storehouses of
biodiversity
• Coral reefs are easily damaged because
they grow slowly, are disrupted easily and
require specific water conditions.
• Coral bleaching occurs when stresses
such as increased temperature cause the
symbiotic zooxanthellae to die. Without
food, the coral polyps die, leaving behind a
white skeleton of calcium carbonate.
A healthy coral reef and a
bleached one
Coral reefs are storehouses of
biodiversity
• Ocean water is becoming more acidic as it
absorbs some of excess carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere. The CO2 reacts with ocean water to
form a weak acid, which can slowly dissolve the
calcium carbonate that makes up the corals.
• Almost 45–53% of the world’s shallow coral
reefs have been destroyed or degraded by
coastal development, pollution, overfishing,
warmer ocean temperatures, increasing ocean
acidity, and other stresses.
The open sea and the ocean
floor host a variety of species
• The open sea occurs beyond the edge of the
continental shelf and is divided into three vertical
zones largely on the basis of the penetration of
sunlight.
– The euphotic zone is the brightly lit upper zone,
where drifting phytoplankton carry out about 40% of
the world’s photosynthetic activity.
– The bathyal zone is the middle zone, which gets little
sunlight and therefore does not contain
photosynthesizing producers.
– The lowest zone, called the abyssal zone, is dark and
very cold; it has little dissolved oxygen.
Human activities are disrupting and
degrading marine ecosystems
• About 45% of the world’s population and more
than half of the U.S. population live along or
near coasts.
• Major threats to marine systems from human
activities include:
– Coastal development, which destroys and pollutes
coastal habitats.
– Runoff of nonpoint source pollution such as fertilizers,
pesticides, and livestock.
– Point-source pollution such as sewage from
passenger cruise ships and spills from oil tankers.
Human activities are disrupting and
degrading marine ecosystems
– Overfishing, which depletes populations of
commercial fish species.
– Use of trawler fishing boats, which drag weighted nets
across the ocean bottom and destroy habitats.
– Invasive species, some introduced by humans, that
can out compete populations of native aquatic
species and cause economic damage.
– Climate change which is warming the oceans and
making them more acidic; this could cause a rise in
sea levels during this century that would destroy coral
reefs and flood coastal marshes and coastal cities.
Major threats to marine
ecosystems by humans
Section 7-6
WHAT ARE THE MAJOR TYPES
OF FRESHWATER SYSTEMS AND
HOW HAVE HUMAN ACTIVITIES
AFFECTED THEM?
Water stands in some freshwater
systems and flows in others
• Freshwater life zones include standing bodies of
freshwater such as lakes, ponds, and inland
wetlands, and flowing (lotic) systems such as
streams and rivers.
• Lakes are large natural bodies of standing
freshwater formed when precipitation, runoff,
streams and rivers, and groundwater seepage
fill depressions.
• Oligotrophic (poorly nourished) lakes have a
small supply of plant nutrients, causing them to
look crystal clear.
Water stands in some freshwater
systems and flows in others
• Eutrophic (well-nourished) lakes have a large
supply of nutrients needed by producers,
causing them have high productivity and look
murky brown or green.
• Cultural eutrophication occurs when human
inputs of nutrients from the atmosphere and from
nearby urban and agricultural areas accelerate
eutrophication.
Freshwater systems provide
many important services
Typical distinct zones of life in fairly
deep temperate-zone lakes
Painted
turtle
Blue-winged
teal
Green
frog
Muskrat
Pond
snail
Littoral zone
Plankton
Diving
beetle
Northern
pike
Yellow
perch
Bloodworms
Fig. 7-28, p. 146
The effect of nutrient
enrichment on a lake
Freshwater streams and rivers carry
water from the mountains to the oceans
• Surface water becomes runoff when it flows into
streams or lakes.
• A watershed, or drainage basin, is the land area
that delivers runoff, sediment, and dissolved
substances to a stream or lake.
• The downward flow of water from mountain
highlands to the sea typically takes place in
three aquatic life zones characterized by
different environmental conditions:
– The source zone, the transition zone, and the
floodplain zone.
Three zones in the downward
flow of water
Rain and
snow
Lake Glacier
Headwaters
Rapids
Waterfall
Tributary
Flood plain
Oxbow lake
Salt marsh
Delta
Deposited
sediment
Ocean
Source Zone
Transition Zone
Water
Floodplain Zone
Sediment
Fig. 7-30, p. 147
Freshwater inland wetlands are
vital sponges
• Inland wetlands are lands covered with
freshwater all or part of the time and located
away from coastal areas.
– Marshes (mainly grasses, reeds, and few trees).
– Swamps (dominated by trees and shrubs).
– Prairie potholes (depressions carved out by ancient
glaciers).
– Floodplains (receive excess water during heavy rains
and floods).
– Seasonal wetlands (remain under water or are soggy
for only a short time each year).
– Arctic tundra (wet in summer).
Freshwater inland wetlands are
vital sponges
• Inland wetlands provide a number of free
ecological and economic services, which
include:
– Filtering and degrading toxic wastes and
pollutants.
– Reducing flooding and erosion by absorbing
storm water and releasing it slowly, and by
absorbing overflows from streams and lakes.
– Maintaining stream flows during dry periods.
– Helping to recharge groundwater aquifers
Freshwater inland wetlands are
vital sponges
– Helping to maintain biodiversity by providing
habitats for a variety of species,
– Supplying valuable products such as fishes
and shellfish, blueberries, cranberries, wild
rice, and timber, and
– Providing recreation for birdwatchers, nature
photographers, boaters, anglers, and
waterfowl hunters.
Human activities are disrupting and
degrading freshwater systems
• Dams and canals alter and destroy terrestrial and aquatic
wildlife habitats along rivers and in their coastal deltas and
estuaries by reducing water flow and increasing damage
from coastal storms.
• Flood control levees and dikes built along rivers disconnect
the rivers from their floodplains, destroy aquatic habitats,
and alter or reduce the functions of nearby wetlands.
• Cities and farms add pollutants and excess plant nutrients
to nearby streams, rivers, and lakes. This can cause
explosions in the populations of algae and cyanobacteria,
which deplete the lake’s dissolved oxygen. Fishes and
other species may then die off, which causes a major loss
in biodiversity.
Human activities are disrupting and
degrading freshwater systems
• Many inland wetlands have been drained or
filled to grow crops or have been covered
with concrete, asphalt, and buildings.
• More than 50% of the inland wetlands in the
continental United States have been lost
which has increased flood damage in the
United States.
Three big ideas
• Differences in climate, based mostly on long-term
differences in average temperature and precipitation,
largely determine the types and locations of the earth’s
deserts, grasslands, and forests.
• Saltwater and freshwater aquatic systems cover almost
three-fourths of the earth’s surface, and oceans dominate
the planet.
• The earth’s terrestrial and aquatic systems provide
important ecological and economic services, which are
being degraded and disrupted by human activities.