Climate and Terrestrial Biodiversity
Chapter 7
Core Case Study: Connections between
Wind, Climate, and Biomes
 Wind
• Indirect form of solar energy
 Circulates
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Heat
Moisture
Plant nutrients
Soil particles
Long-lived air pollutants
Dust Blown from West Africa to the
Amazonian Rain Forests
7-1 What Factors Influence Climate?
 Concept 7-1 An area's climate is determined
mostly by solar radiation, the earth’s rotation,
global patterns of air and water movement,
gases in the atmosphere, and the earth’s
surface features.
The Earth Has Many Different
Climates (1)
 Weather
 Climate
 Air circulation in lower atmosphere due to
• Uneven heating of the earth’s surface by the sun
• Rotation of the earth on its axis
• Properties of air, water, and land
The Earth Has Many Different
Climates (2)
 Currents
• Prevailing winds
• Earth’s rotation
• Redistribution of heat from the sun
 Link between air circulation, ocean currents, and
biomes
Natural Capital: Generalized Map of the
Earth’s Current Climate Zones
Global Air Circulation
Energy Transfer by Convection
in the Atmosphere
Connected Deep and Shallow
Ocean Currents
Global Air Circulation, Ocean Currents,
and Biomes
Greenhouse Gases Warm the
Lower Atmosphere
 Greenhouse gases
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H2O
CO2
CH4
N2O
 Greenhouse effect
 Human-enhanced global warming
Flow of Energy to and from the Earth
The Earth’s Surface Features Affect
Local Climates
 Heat absorption by land and water
 Effect of
• Mountains
• Rain shadow effect
• Cities
• Microclimates
Rain Shadow Effect
7-2 How Does Climate Affect the Nature
and Locations of Biomes?
 Concept 7-2 Differences in average annual
precipitation and temperature lead to the
formation of tropical, temperate, and cold
deserts, grasslands, and forests, and largely
determine their locations.
Climate Affects Where Organisms
Can Live
 Major biomes
 Latitude and elevation
 Annual precipitation
 Temperature
The Earth’s Major Biomes
Generalized Effects of Elevation and
Latitude on Climate and Biomes
Natural Capital: Average Precipitation and
Average Temperature as Limiting Factors
Science Focus: Staying Alive
in the Desert
 Plant adaptations
 Animal strategies and adaptations
There Are Three Major Types of Deserts
 Tropical deserts
 Temperate deserts
 Cold deserts
 Fragile ecosystem
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Slow plant growth
Low species diversity
Slow nutrient recycling
Lack of water
Climate Graphs of Three Types of
Deserts
There Are Three Major Types of
Grasslands (1)
 Tropical
 Temperate
 Cold (arctic tundra)
There Are Three Major Types of
Grasslands (2)
 Tropical
• Savanna
• Grazing animals
• Browsing animals
 Temperate
• Tall-grass prairies
• Short-grass prairies
There Are Three Major Types of
Grasslands (3)
 Arctic tundra: fragile biome
 Adaptations of plants and animals
 Permafrost
 Alpine tundra
Climate Graphs of Tropical, Temperate,
and Cold Grasslands
Monoculture Crop Replacing Biologically
Diverse Temperate Grassland
Temperate Shrubland: Nice Climate,
Risky Place to Live
 Chaparral
 Near the sea: nice climate
 Prone to fires in the dry season
Chaparral Vegetation in Utah, U.S.
There Are Three Major Types of
Forests (1)
 Tropical
 Temperate
 Cold
• Northern coniferous and boreal
There Are Three Major Types of
Forests (2)
 Tropical rain forests
• Temperature and moisture
• Stratification of specialized plant and animal
niches
• Little wind: significance
• Rapid recycling of scarce soil nutrients
• Impact of human activities
There Are Three Major Types of
Forests (3)
 Temperate deciduous forests
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Temperature and moisture
Broad-leaf trees
Slow rate of decomposition: significance
Impact of human activities
There Are Three Major Types of
Forests (4)
 Evergreen coniferous forests: boreal and taigas
• Temperature and moisture
• Few species of cone: bearing trees
• Slow decomposition: significance
 Coastal coniferous forest
 Temperate rain forests
Climate Graphs of Tropical, Temperate,
and Cold Forests
Some Components and Interactions in a
Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystem
Stratification of Specialized Plant and
Animal Niches in a Tropical Rain Forest
Temperate Rain Forest in Washington
State, U.S.
Mountains Play Important
Ecological Roles
 Majority of the world’s forests
 Habitats for endemic species
 Help regulate the earth’s climate
 Can affect sea levels
 Major storehouses of water
• Role in hydrologic cycle
Mount Rainier National Park in
Washington State, U.S.
7-3 How Have We Affected the Word’s
Terrestrial Ecosystems?
 Concept 7-3 In many areas, human activities
are impairing ecological and economic services
provided by the earth’s deserts, grasslands,
forests, and mountains.
Humans Have Disturbed Most of
the Earth’s Lands
 Deserts
 Grasslands
 Forests
 Mountains
Major Human Impacts on Terrestrial
Ecosystems
Aquatic Biodiversity
Chapter 8
Core Case Study: Why Should We Care
about Coral Reefs? (1)
 Biodiversity
 Formation
 Important ecological and economic services
• Moderate atmospheric temperatures
• Act as natural barriers protecting coasts from
erosion
• Provide habitats
• Support fishing and tourism businesses
• Provide jobs and building materials
• Studied and enjoyed
Core Case Study: Why Should We Care
about Coral Reefs? (2)
 Degradation and decline
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Coastal development
Pollution
Overfishing
Warmer ocean temperatures leading to coral
bleaching
• Increasing ocean acidity
A Healthy Coral Reef in the Red Sea
8-1 What Is the General Nature of
Aquatic Systems?
 Concept 8-1A Saltwater and freshwater aquatic
life zones cover almost three-fourths of the
earth’s surface with oceans dominating the
planet.
 Concept 8-1B The key factors determining
biodiversity in aquatic systems are temperature,
dissolved oxygen content, availability of food
and availability of light and nutrients necessary
for photosynthesis.
Most of the Earth Is Covered with
Water (1)
 Saltwater: global ocean divided into 4 areas
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Atlantic
Pacific
Arctic
Indian
 Freshwater
Most of the Earth Is Covered with
Water (2)
 Aquatic life zones
• Saltwater: marine
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Oceans and estuaries
Coastlands and shorelines
Coral reefs
Mangrove forests
• Freshwater
• Lakes
• Rivers and streams
• Inland wetlands
The Ocean Planet
Distribution of the World’s Major
Saltwater and Freshwater Sources
Most Aquatic Species Live in Top,
Middle, or Bottom Layers of Water (1)
 Plankton
• Phytoplankton
• Zooplankton
• Ultraplankton
 Nekton
 Benthos
 Decomposers
Most Aquatic Species Live in Top,
Middle, or Bottom Layers of Water (2)
 Key factors in the distribution of organisms
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Temperature
Dissolved oxygen content
Availability of food
Availability of light and nutrients needed for
photosynthesis in the euphotic, or photic, zone
8-2 Why Are Marine Aquatic
Systems Important?
 Concept 8-2 Saltwater ecosystems are
irreplaceable reservoirs of biodiversity and
provide major ecological and economic services.
Oceans Provide Important Ecological
and Economic Resources
 Reservoirs of diversity in three major life zones
• Coastal zone
• Usually high NPP
• Open sea
• Ocean bottom
Major Ecological and Economic Services
Provided by Marine Systems
Natural Capital: Major Life Zones and
Vertical Zones in an Ocean
Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands Are
Highly Productive (1)
 Estuaries and coastal wetlands
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River mouths
Inlets
Bays
Sounds
Salt marshes
Mangrove forests
 Seagrass Beds
• Support a variety of marine species
• Stabilize shorelines
• Reduce wave impact
Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands Are
Highly Productive (2)
 Important ecological and economic services
• Coastal aquatic systems maintain water quality
by filtering
• Toxic pollutants
• Excess plant nutrients
• Sediments
• Absorb other pollutants
• Provide food, timber, fuelwood, and habitats
• Reduce storm damage and coast erosion
View of an Estuary from Space
Some Components and Interactions in a
Salt Marsh Ecosystem in a Temperate Area
Mangrove Forest in Daintree National
Park in Queensland, Australia
Rocky and Sandy Shores Host Different
Types of Organisms
 Intertidal zone
• Rocky shores
• Sandy shores: barrier beaches
 Organism adaptations necessary to deal with
daily salinity and moisture changes
 Importance of sand dunes
Living between the Tides
Primary and Secondary Dunes
Coral Reefs Are Amazing Centers
of Biodiversity
 Marine equivalent of tropical rain forests
 Habitats for one-fourth of all marine species
Natural Capital: Some Components and
Interactions in a Coral Reef Ecosystem
The Open Sea and Ocean Floor Host a
Variety of Species
 Vertical zones of the open sea
• Euphotic zone
• Bathyal zone
• Abyssal zone: receives marine snow
• Deposit feeders
• Filter feeders
• Upwellings
 Primary productivity and NPP
8-3 How Have Human Activities Affected
Marine Ecosystems?
 Concept 8-3 Human activities threaten aquatic
biodiversity and disrupt ecological and economic
services provided by saltwater systems.
Human Activities Are Disrupting and
Degrading Marine Systems
 Major threats to marine systems
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Coastal development
Overfishing
Runoff of nonpoint source pollution
Point source pollution
Habitat destruction
Introduction of invasive species
Climate change from human activities
Pollution of coastal wetlands and estuaries
Case Study: The Chesapeake Bay—an
Estuary in Trouble (1)
 Largest estuary in the US; polluted since 1960
 Population increased
 Point and nonpoint sources raised pollution
 Phosphate and nitrate levels too high
Case Study: The Chesapeake Bay—an
Estuary in Trouble (2)
 Overfishing
 1983: Chesapeake Bay Program
• Update on recovery of the Bay
• Should we introduce an Asian oyster?
Chesapeake Bay
8-4 Why Are Freshwater Ecosystems
Important?
 Concept 8-4 Freshwater ecosystems provide
major ecological and economic services and are
irreplaceable reservoirs of biodiversity.
Water Stands in Some Freshwater
Systems and Flows in Others (1)
 Standing (lentic) bodies of freshwater
• Lakes
• Ponds
• Inland wetlands
 Flowing (lotic) systems of freshwater
• Streams
• Rivers
Water Stands in Some Freshwater
Systems and Flows in Others (2)
 Formation of lakes
 Four zones based on depth and distance from
shore
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Littoral zone
Limnetic zone
Profundal zone
Benthic zone
Major Ecological and Economic Services
Provided by Freshwater Systems
Distinct Zones of Life in a Fairly Deep
Temperate Zone Lake
Some Lakes Have More Nutrients
Than Others
 Oligotrophic lakes
• Low levels of nutrients and low NPP
 Eutrophic lakes
• High levels of nutrients and high NPP
 Mesotrophic lakes
 Cultural eutrophication leads to hypereutrophic
lakes
The Effect of Nutrient Enrichment
on a Lake
Freshwater Streams and Rivers Carry
Water from the Mountains to the Oceans
 Surface water
 Runoff
 Watershed, drainage basin
 Three aquatic life zones
• Source zone
• Transition zone
• Floodplain zone
Three Zones in the Downhill Flow
of Water
Case Study: Dams, Deltas, Wetlands,
Hurricanes, and New Orleans
 Coastal deltas, mangrove forests, and coastal
wetlands: natural protection against storms
 Dams and levees reduce sediments in deltas:
significance?
 New Orleans, Louisiana, and Hurricane Katrina:
August 29, 2005
 Global warming, sea rise, and New Orleans
New Orleans, Louisiana, (U.S.) and
Hurricane Katrina
Projection of New Orleans if the Sea
Level Rises 0.9 Meter
Freshwater Inland Wetlands Are
Vital Sponges (1)
 Marshes
 Swamps
 Prairie potholes
 Floodplains
 Arctic tundra in summer
Freshwater Inland Wetlands Are
Vital Sponges (2)
 Provide free ecological and economic services
• Filter and degrade toxic wastes
• Reduce flooding and erosion
• Help to replenish streams and recharge
groundwater aquifers
• Biodiversity
• Food and timber
• Recreation areas
8-5 How Have Human Activities Affected
Freshwater Ecosystems?
 Concept 8-5 Human activities threaten
biodiversity and disrupt ecological and economic
services provided by freshwater lakes, rivers,
and wetlands.
Human Activities Are Disrupting and
Degrading Freshwater Systems
 Impact of dams and canals on rivers
 Impact of flood control levees and dikes along
rivers
 Impact of pollutants from cities and farms on
rivers
 Impact of drained wetlands
Case Study: Inland Wetland Losses in the
United States
 Loss of wetlands has led to
• Increased flood and drought damage
 Lost due to
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Growing crops
Mining
Forestry
Oil and gas extraction
Building highways
Urban development