The Fundamentals of
Public Speaking
SPE121
Class Rules
• Mutual Respect
• Be a good and respectful audience
• Turn off cell phones
(Hiding a phone is not “turning off”)
• No food in classroom
• Attend to bathroom needs before class
• If you must go to the bathroom,
ask, then leave cell phone with professor
Attendance
• “Half of life is showing up”
(That doesn’t mean showing up half the time)
• Public Speaking is a participation class
• Attendance taken at beginning of class
• Late students have no claim to having their
attendance recorded.
Attendance
• More than three absences  Grade dropped
• No difference between “excused” & “unexcused”
Being a Good Audience
•
•
•
•
•
Showing up on time
Listening
Not checking cell phones messages
Being quiet during speech
No knuckle-cracking
Top 5 Ways to Fail this Course
• Believe this is a “light” course
• Only come to deliver speeches
• Not prepare for speeches
• Come late to class
• Ignore the cell phone policy
Dropping the Course
• Stopping Attendance is not “dropping”
• Instructors can not “drop” you.
• If you wish to drop, go to Registrar ASAP
Class Speech Process
• Student speaker provides outline to Instructor
• Speaker introduces him/herself to audience
(First & Last Name)
• Gives speech
• Speaker opens floor for questions
• Instructor opens floor for critique (feedback)
• Audience provides critique (feedback)
Anxiety / Nervousness
•
•
•
•
•
Nervousness is normal
Survey: Death vs. Public Speaking
This class is “safe”
This class is a place to practice
Remember, the audience wants you to
succeed.
Anxiety / Nervousness
• Know your audience
• Don’t procrastinate
• Pick an appropriate topic
• Prepare & be organized
• Instructor opens floor for critique (feedback)
• Audience provides critique (feedback)
Why Study Public Speaking?
• Employment
• Empowerment
“A Speech” vs. Conversation
• Planned
• Formal
• Roles of audience
and speaker well
defined
• Spontaneous
• Informal
• Roles are fluid
Communications Process
Sender
Receiver
Filter
Transmission
Encoding
Decoding
Static
Disfluency
• An interruption in the smooth flow of
speech, by a pause, the repetition of a
word or syllable
Overcoming Barriers
to Effective Listening
Reading: Chapter 3
Turn Cell Phones OFF
Listening
• Selecting
• Attending
• Understanding
• Remembering
• Responding
Barriers to Listening
• Information Overload
• Outside Distractions
• Prejudice
• Difference in speech and thought rates
• Responding
Audience Centered
Speechmaking Process
Reading: Chapter 2
Turn Cell Phones OFF
Consider Your Audience
• Gather & analyze information about
your audience
• Consider the nature and diversity of
your audience
- Culture, Beliefs, Experiences, Political Inclinations
- Consider making appropriate references or comparisons
• What is the occasion?
- If so, acknowledge it or integrate it into your speech
• What are the audience expectations?
- Content
- Length
Consider the Venue
• Physical location & configuration
• Formal or casual?
• What comes before or after your
speech or presentation?
Select & Narrow the Topic
• Who is the audience?
• What are my interests, talents &
experiences?
• Determine the general purpose
- To inform
- To persuade
- To entertain
• Determine the specific purpose
• Develop central idea
Generate Main Ideas
• Central idea can be summarized in a
single sentence
• Develop main points of speech
• Use logical divisions (and sequence)
• If possible present new insights
(Textbook calls this “invention”)
• Support these insights
(Don’t expect faith)
Gather Supporting Material
• Supporting material should be:
- Accurate
- Interesting
• May include material from:
- News articles
- Quotes
- Statistics
Visual Materials
• Visual Aids should support and
reinforce your points
• Avoid irrelevant or distracting
“eye candy” or gimmicks
Organize Your Speech
Use major divisions:
• Introduction
Get attention & focus audience
(joke, story, shocking statistic)
Provide an idea of where the speech is going
Preview structure (sometimes)
Organize Your Speech
• Body
(Structured with subdivisions)
I. Major Idea
A. Supporting idea or evidence
B. Supporting idea or evidence
II. Major Idea
A. Supporting idea or evidence
B. Supporting idea or evidence
• Conclusion
Should remind audience of central idea
“Call to action”
Rehearse
• First, in your head
• Then, out loud
• Work out pronunciations and
inadvertent tongue twisters
Deliver Your Speech
• Make eye contact
• Audiences will not perceive
nervousness as much as you think
• Have water, but not milk, caffeine or
carbonated beverages
• Spit out the gum
Questions?
Delivering Your Speech
Reading: Chapter 13
Methods of Delivery
• Manuscript Reading
• Memorized Speaking
• Impromptu Speaking
• Extemporaneous Speaking
Manuscript Reading
Advantages:
- Can craft a careful message
(particularly helpful if speaking to the media)
- Allows for polishing and stylizing
Disadvantages:
- May sound like it’s being read
- Requires skill & practice
- May require cue cards or a teleprompter &
operator
Teleprompter
Video
Camera
Video
Monitor
With Speech
(Reverse)
Memorized Speaking
Advantages:
- Can have direct eye contact
- No need for notes
- Can move around freely and gesture
Disadvantages:
- Speaker may forget
- May sound overly mechanical or rehearsed
Impromptu Speaking
Advantages:
- Can move around freely and gesture
- Spontaneously and authentically delivered
Disadvantages:
- May be less organized
- Difficult to cite evidence
Extemporaneous Speaking
Knowing major outlined points, but
not memorizing exact wording
Advantages:
- Well organized and researched
- Audience sees authentically delivered speech
Disadvantages:
- Takes time to prepare
- Takes skill to deliver well
- Notes are usually needed
Characteristics of
Effective Delivery
• Good eye contact
• Gestures
- Pointing
- Hands on hip(s)
- “Parade rest”
- “Fig Leaf clutch”
• Gesture functions
- Repeating/reinforcing, substituting, contradicting
Characteristics of
Effective Delivery
• Movement
- Can eliminate barriers between speaker
and audience
- Maintain eye contact while moving
• Posture
Characteristics of
Effective Delivery
• Vocal Quality & Delivery
- Pitch
- Volume
- Articulation / Diction
- Examples of poor articulation
“Lemme”
“Mornin”
“Dint”
“Whayado?”
“Seeya”
“Fogedaboudit”
“Wanna”
Characteristics of
Effective Delivery
• Pronunciation
“aks”, “Nucular”
• Dialect
po’-lice vs. “po-lice’
um’-brella vs. Um-brell’-a
in’-sur-ance vs. in-sur’-ance
• Rate
• Pauses
Use of Microphones
• Types of Microphones
- Stationary
- Hand mike
- Boom
- Lavalier
• Sound Check / Sound Operator
• Microphones amplify mistakes too!
• Beware of levels, sound pops, nearby
speakers (feedback) & the
inverse-square law
Inverse Square Law
Distance
1x
2x
3x
4x
5x
Volume
1
1/4
1/9
1/16
1/25
Delivering Your Speech
• We plenty of rest
• Arrive early
• Visualize success
Speaking on Television
• Tone down gestures
• Pay attention to attire
- Avoid whites
- Avoid extreme darks
- Avoid heavy patterns
- Solid colors are best
- Avoid shiny jewelry
- Wear clothing that is slimming
(Avoid horizontal stripes, etc.)
Responding to Questions
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Anticipate & Prepare
Rephrase question for audience
Stay on Message
Respond to the audience not just the
questioner
Listen non-judgmentally
Neutralize hostile questions
Be brief
If you don’t know, admit it
Indicate limits of Q&A
Questions?
Developing Your Speech
Reading: Chapter 6
Developing Your Speech
1.
2.
3.
4.
Select and Narrow Your Topic
Determine Your Purpose
Develop Your Central Idea
Generate Your Main Ideas
Guidelines for
Selecting a Topic
• Consider the Audience
- What do they know already?
- What is their predisposition?
- What are their expectations?
- Have you spoken to this audience before?
• Consider the Occasion
- A Formal Commemorative Occasion?
- A Roast?
Strategies for
Selecting a Topic
• Brainstorming
• Listening for Topic Ideas
- Professors
- Other experts
- Television / Radio
• Reading for Topic Ideas
- Newspapers / Magazines
- Books & Encyclopedias
- Scan Web Directories
Narrowing a Topic
Idea Cluster
Prevention
Family Courts
White Collar
Supreme Court
Evidence Rules
Gangs
Crime
Court System
Appeals
Jurisdiction
Economic
Causes
Criminal
Justice
FBI
State Police
Violence
Gangs
Prisons
Law
Enforcement
Local Police
Prison Life
Inmate Discipline Prisoner Rights
Rehabilitation
Training
Social
Work Release
Solitary Confinement
Training
Narrowing a Topic
Idea Cluster
Supreme Court
Early History
Judicial Activism
Originalism vs. “Living Document”
Checks & Balances
Specific Cases
Brown v. Board of Education
Marbury v. Madison
Roe v. Wade
Determining Purpose
• General Purpose
(To Inform, Persuade or Entertain)
• Specific Purpose
- Behavioral Objective
• Limit Specific Purpose to Single Idea
- Must reflect needs, interests, knowledge
& expectations of audience
- This is the “Central Idea”
Behavioral Objectives
• Unobservable or Un-measurable
“To know about…”
“To understand…”
• Observable or Measurable
“To be able to explain the difference between…”
“To be able to define…”
“To be able to perform…”
“To be able to analyze…”
Generating Main Ideas
• Support why the central idea is true
• Use Logical Divisions
• Can you use a series of steps or a
chronological progression?
Generating Main Ideas
Central Idea
Main Idea
Supporting
Details
Supporting
Details
Main Idea
Supporting
Details
Supporting
Details
Main Idea
Supporting
Details
Supporting
Details
Questions?
Organizing Your Speech
Supporting the Central Idea
Reading: Chapter 9
Organizing Main Ideas
• Organize Topically
Based on…
- Primacy
(Important if audience is unfamiliar with subject or resistant)
- Recency
(Good for focusing on last item)
- Complexity
(From simple to complex)
Organizing Main Ideas
• Organize Chronologically
- Historically
(Development of an institution, scientific progress, etc.)
- Steps in a procedure
(Obtaining a drivers license, performing an operation, etc.)
• Organize Spatially
Organizing Main Ideas
• Organize by Cause & Effect
1. Cause
2. Effect
3. Effect
1. Effect
2. Cause
3. Cause
Organizing Main Ideas
• Organize by Problem & Solution
1. Problem
2. Solution
3. Solution
1. Solution
2. Problem
3. Problem
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Main Idea
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Main Idea
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Organizing Supporting Details
Central Idea
Main Idea
Organizing Supporting Details
• Primacy or Recency
• Complexity (Simple to Complex)
• From soft to hard evidence
(From opinions to facts)
- Illustration or Example
- Expert Testimony
- Hard Statistics
Transitions
• Transitions signal moving from one
section to another.
• Transition help explain the relationship
of one point to another
• Verbal Transitions
• Nonverbal Transitions
Previews
• Can increase interest
• Control expectations
Summaries
• Remind the audience of key points
• Can reinforce a conclusion
• Can lead up to a call-to-action
Questions?
Introducing and Concluding
Your Speech
Reading: Chapter 10
Please turn OFF all cell phones
The Purpose of Introductions
• Get the audiences favorable attention
• To give the audience a reason to listen
• Introduce the subject
• Establish credibility
• Preview your main ideas
Possible Introductions
• Illustrations or anecdotes
• Startling facts or statistics
• Quotations
• Humor
• Questions
• References to historical or recent events
• Personal references
Comedy vs. Humor
• The objective of Comedy is to make the
audience laugh.
• The objective of Humor is to make a
point in an amusing way.
The Purpose of Conclusions
• Summarize the speech
• Restate main ideas
• Provide closure
• Motivate the audience to respond
Conclusion Possibilities
• Reference back to the introduction
• Issue an appeal or challenge
Questions?
Speaking to Inform
Reading: Chapter 15
Please turn OFF all cell phones
The Goals of Informative Speaking
• To enhance understanding
• To maintain interest
• To be remembered
• To present information objectively
Types of Topics
• Speeches about Objects
(Dead Sea Scrolls, Antique Toys, the Rosetta Stone,
Digital Video Cameras)
• Speeches about Processes
(Selecting a school, filing taxes, refinishing furniture, installing,
the Electoral College)
• Speeches about People
(Biography)
• Speeches about Events
(December 7, 1941, 9/11/2001, WWII, Civil Rights Movement)
• Speeches about Ideas & Issues
(Free Enterprise, Socialism, Open Enrollment, Creativity)
Strategies to Enhance
Audience Understanding
Speaking with Clarity
• Preview your ideas in your introduction
• Relate your points to one another
• Summarize key ideas
• Handouts
(outlines, examples, follow-up readings)
• Don’t present too much information too quickly
Strategies to Enhance
Audience Understanding
Use Principles & Techniques of Adult
Learning (Androgogy)
• Provide info that can be used immediately
• Actively involve listener in the learning
process
• Connect with listener’s experience
• Help solve their problems
Strategies to Enhance
Audience Understanding
Use Analogies to facilitate understanding
“If the our galaxy were the size of the United
States, our solar system would be the size of a
baseball.”
Strategies to Enhance
Audience Understanding
Use Exercises
FB INA SA NA TOU PS IR S
FBI
NASA NATO
UPS IRS
Strategies to Enhance Audience
Understanding & Retention
Use Vivid Descriptions / Word Pictures
Involve all senses
• Sight – Color, Brightness, Contrast
• Hearing – Volume, Pitch, Scratchy
• Touch – Smoothness, Roughness, Temperate
• Smell – Sweet, Sour, Putrid,
• Taste – Delicate, Clean, Refreshing, Salty, Sweet
• Emotions – Love, fear, anger, compassion
Strategies to Maintain Interest
• Establish a Motive for Your Audience
• Use the Unexpected
• Tell an Interesting Story
- May include Conflict, Action, Suspense
and/or Humor
Strategies to Enhance Recall
• Build in Redundancy
• Make your Ideas Short and Simple
• Pace the flow of Information
• Reinforce the Key Ideas
Questions?
Outlining & Editing
Your Speech
Reading: Chapter 11
Please turn OFF all cell phones
Outlining & Editing
• Writing is a process, not a result
• Even outlines have drafts
• A speech must have a logical flow
and deliverability
Outline
•
Purpose
In an outline, writing in the purpose may help keep focus
•
•
•
•
Introduction
Central Idea
Preview Main Ideas
Body
(containing main ideas and supporting material)
•
Conclusion
Correct Outline Form for Body
I.
A.
I. First Main Idea
A. Subpoint of First Main Idea
1. Subpoint of Subpoint A
a. Subpoint of Subpoint 1
b. Subpoint of Subpoint 1
2. Subpoint of Subpoint A
a. Subpoint of Subpoint 2
b. Subpoint of Subpoint 2
B. Subpoint of Main First Main Idea
1. Subpoint of Subpoint B
a. Subpoint of Subpoint 1
b. Subpoint of Subpoint 1
2. Subpoint of Subpoint B
a. Subpoint of Subpoint 2
b. Subpoint of Subpoint 2
II. Second Main Idea
1.
a.
(1)
(a)
Sample outline on Page 250
Editing
• Review your specific purpose
• Consider your audience
• Say it simply
• Eliminate phrases that don’t add
meaning
• Editing is just as much about what you
don’t say
• Editing doesn’t stop until the speech
Avoid Meaningless Phrases
•
•
•
•
•
•
“In my opinion…”
“…and all that”
“As a matter of fact…”
“Before I begin, I’d like to say…”
“When all is said and done…”
“At the end of the day…”
“We respectfully petition, request and entreat that due
and adequate provision be made, this day and date
hereinafter subscribed, for the satisfying of these
petitioners’ nutritional requirements and for the
organizing of such methods of allocation and distribution
as may be deemed necessary and proper to assure the
reception by and for said petitioners of such quantities of
baked cereal products shall in the judgment of the
aforesaid petitioners, constitute a sufficient supply
thereof.”
“Give us this day our daily bread”
Avoid Narrating Your
Speaking Technique
•
•
•
•
“Here’s a story I’d like to share”
“I’d like to make several points here”
“There are a few points I’d like to make”
“I’d like to give you an illustration”
• Signposts (transitions) are OK, but avoid
unnecessary phrases or sentences.
“Let me just say very quickly that the horrifying
abuse of Iraqi prisoners which the world has
now seen is absolutely unacceptable and
inexcusable. And the response of the
administration – certainly the Pentagon – has
been slow and insufficient.
“It is important to understand this point. The
company has spent billions and billions of
dollars on unnecessary research that has
yielded no results.
“Basically, the incompetent governor of our state
completely misread the political situation,
resulting in the total failure of this key legislation.
Delivery Outline/Speaking Notes
• Do not include your purpose statement
• Use single words or brief phrases
• Include supporting materials
(Quotes, statistics, etc.)
• Include key phrases for important points
• Can include pictures, symbols or diagrams
• Single page or index cards?
Questions?
Gathering & Using
Supporting Materials
Reading: Chapters 7 & 8
Please turn OFF all cell phones
Supporting Materials
• Must support the Main Ideas and
ultimately the Central Idea
• Must be interesting
• Must be comprehendible to the
audience
Search Methods & Sources
• Books
- Encyclopedias
- Dictionaries
- Atlases
- Directories
- Almanacs & Yearbooks
- Books of Quotations
- Biographies
• Periodicals
- Newspapers (Stacks)
- Magazines
- Trade Journals
• Government Documents
& Databases
• The Internet
- Search Engines
(Google, Yahoo, etc.)
- Association Websites
- Government Websites
- E-mail experts
- Wikipedia
• Interviewing experts
Preparing for an Interview
• Determine what information you want from your
interviewee
• Research beforehand
(Don’t waste interviewing time by asking questions that can
easily be answered elsewhere!)
• Plan your questions ahead of time
• Dress appropriately, act professionally
• Use a recorder, (but ask first) and take notes
Evaluating Sources
• Accuracy & Reliability
Does the source provide consistently correct information?
Verify with second sources when possible
• Objectivity
Be careful of biases and agendas
• Date
Is the information current?
Is it still relevant? Or, is it a historical reference?
Supporting Materials
• Illustrations
- Brief Illustrations
- Extended Illustrations
- Hypothetical
“Imagine a future where…”
• Descriptions & Explanations
• Definitions
Use to enlighten, not as a filler
Supporting Materials
• Analogies
- Literal Analogies
- Figurative Analogies
• Statistics
Round off numbers
“Over 45 thousand” rather than “45,394”
Charts reinforce numbers
Supporting Materials
• Opinions
- Expert Testimony
- Lay Testimony
Questions?
Speaking Freely & Ethically
Reading: Chapter 3
Please turn OFF all cell phones
Freedom of Speech
• First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution
“Congress shall make no law respecting an
establishment of religion, or prohibiting the
free exercise thereof; or abridging the
freedom of speech, or of the press; or the
right of the people peaceably to assemble,
and to petition the government for a redress
of grievances.”
• The First Amendment does NOT protect
slander or libel
What is Censorship?
• Do we have right to be published?
• Or merely a right to publish?
Freedom of Speech History
• First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution
• 1798 Sedition Act
• During WWI, SC ruled it lawful to restrict speech
that was a “clear & present danger” (1919)
• ACLU is formed in 1920
Freedom of Speech History
• In 1964, Supreme Courts narrows definitions of
slander to speech which harms with malice
• 1989 – Supreme Court declares flag burning is
protected speech
• 1997 – Supreme Court strikes down the
Communication Decency Act
Speaking Ethically
•
•
•
•
With freedom comes responsibility
Have a clear & responsible goal
Be honest
Use sound evidence & reasoning
- Avoid Logical Fallacies
• Be tolerant
• Don’t plagiarize
- Acknowledge Sources (Written or Oral)
Logical Fallacies
• Basing an argument on insufficient evidence
• Red Herring
• Faulty Analogy
(Prohibit alcohol on boats  Prohibit alcohol on docks)
• Binary Fallacy
• Bandwagon Effect
• Attack made on character instead of issue
Logical Fallacies
• Circular reasoning
“Not enough chairs  Too many people”
“Too many people  Not enough chairs”
• Post Hoc reasoning –
(Confusing time connection with cause & effect)
• Hypostatization – Treating abstract concepts
with concrete realities
Questions?
Understanding Principles of
Persuasive Speaking
Reading: Chapter 16
Please turn OFF all cell phones
Persuasion Defined
Persuasion is the process of changing
or reinforcing a listener’s attitudes,
beliefs or behavior.
Resistance to persuasion will vary
Examples of Persuasive Speech
• Election Campaign Speech
• Sales Presentation
• Business Proposal Presentation
• Recruitment Speech
• Donation Solicitation
• Debate
Classical Approach to
Understanding Persuasion
• Ethos
Refers to credibility
• Logos
Logic
• Pathos
Appealing to human emotions
Elaboration Likelihood Model
(ELM)
• Elaboration means to actively think
• ELM suggests two paths to persuasion
- Direct Persuasion Method
- Indirect Persuasion Method
Using Dissonance
• Dissonance is a mental conflict
or lack of harmony
Reactions to Dissonance
Listeners may…
•
•
•
•
•
Discredit or disregard you
Reinterpret the message
Seek new information for validation
Stop listening
Change their attitudes, beliefs or
behaviors
Persuade through Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self
Actualization
Status / Esteem
Belonging
Security
Survival / Physical Needs
Using Positive Motivation
• Focus on Positive Values
• Emphasize Benefits, not Features
- Features are characteristics of what
is being discussed
- Benefits are the good results that
creates a positive response
Using Negative Motivation
• Using Fear Appeal
• Using “if-then” statements
• Threat to loved ones are more
successful than those aimed at
audience members
• The greater the trust in the speaker,
the more successful the threat
Acknowledging Opposing
Opinions & Arguments
• Makes you more credible
and thoughtful
• Preempts opposing arguments
• Gives the audience ammunition
against future opposing arguments
Questions?
The Use of Reasoning in
Persuasive Speaking
Reading: Chapter 17
Please turn OFF all cell phones
Persuasion Techniques
Different cultures tend to use
different methods of persuasion
•
•
•
•
Narrative Methods (inducing emotions)
Inductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
Causal Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
Uses specific instances to reach a
general and probable conclusion
Challenge Validity by Asking:
• Are there enough instances to support the
conclusion?
• Are the instances typical?
• Are the instances recent?
Reasoning by Analogy
A type of inductive reasoning which
uses comparisons
Challenge Validity by Asking:
• Are there enough similarities to
outweigh the differences?
• Is the original assertion true?
Deductive Reasoning
Uses general fact to reach a
specific and certain conclusion
Often takes the form of
a syllogism
Syllogism
Uses a three-part process:
Major Premise
Minor Premise
Conclusion
Syllogism
Major Premise:
“All gods are immortal.”
Minor Premise:
“Zeus is a god.”
Conclusion:
“Zeus is immortal.”
Syllogism
Major Premise:
“All trees have root systems.”
Minor Premise:
“All root systems need nitrogen.”
Conclusion:
“Therefore, all trees need nitrogen”
Beware the Faulty Syllogism
Major Premise:
“Ten people can do work ten times faster
than one person.”
Minor Premise:
“One person can dig a posthole in sixty seconds.”
Conclusion:
“Therefore, ten people can dig a posthole in
six seconds.”
Questions?
Speaking for Occassions
Reading: Chapter 17
Please turn OFF all cell phones
Humor
• Plays on Words
– Puns
– Spoonerism
Switching the first sounds in words within a phrase
– Malapropism
Mistakenly using a sound-alike word
“My last will and tentacle”
“I like a room with a southern explosion”
Humor
• Plays on Words
– Puns
– Spoonerism
– (Switching the first sounds in words within a
phrase)
– Malapropism
• Hyperbole
• Understand
• Verbal Irony
What is “Funny”?
• Surprise
Questions?