Needed: People-Centered
Managers and Workplaces
Learning Objectives
 Identify at least four of Pfeffer’s people-centered





practices, and define the term management.
Contrast McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
assumptions about employees.
Explain the managerial significance of Deming’s 8515 rule, and identify the four principles of total
quality management (TQM).
Contrast human capital and social capital, and
explain why we need to build both.
Explain the impact of the positive psychology
movement on the field of OB.
Define the term E-business, and specify five ways
the Internet is affecting the management of people
at work.
Chapter One
Pfeffer’s Seven People-Centered Practices
1-1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Job security
Careful hiring
Power to the people
Generous pay for performance
Lots of training
Less emphasis on status
Trust building
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The 4-P Cycle of Continuous Improvement
1-2 Figure 1-1
People
(Skilled, motivated
people who can handle
change. Less stress.)
Productivity
(Less wasteful, more
efficient use of all
resources.)
Products
(Satisfied customers
because of better
quality goods/services.
Job creation.)
Processes
(Faster, more flexible,
leaner, and ethical organizational
processes. Organizational learning.)
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Skills & Best Practices:
The Effective Manager’s Skill Profile
1-3
1. Clarifies goals and objectives for everyone
2.
3.
4.
5.
involved.
Encourages participation, upward
communication, and suggestions.
Plans and organizes for an orderly workflow
Has technical and administrative expertise
to answer organization-related questions.
Facilitates work through team building,
training, coaching, and support.
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Skills & Best Practices:
The Effective Manager’s Skill Profile (Cont.)
1-4
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Provides feedback honestly and constructively.
Keeps things moving by relying on schedules,
deadlines, and helpful reminders.
Controls details without being overbearing.
Applies reasonable pressure for goal
accomplishment.
Empowers and delegates key duties to others while
maintaining goal clarity and commitment.
Recognizes good performance with rewards and
positive reinforcement.
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Evolution of 21st Century Managers
1-5 Table 1-1
Past Managers
Future Managers
Primary role
Order giver,
privileged elite,
manipulator,
controller
Facilitator, team
member, teacher,
advocate, sponsor,
coach, partner
Learning and
knowledge
Periodic learning,
narrow specialist
Continuous life-long
learning, generalist
with multiple
specialties
Compensation
criteria
Time, effort, rank
Skills, results
Cultural orientation Monocultural,
monolingual
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Multicultural,
multilingual
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Evolution of 21st Century Managers (Cont.)
1-6 Table 1-1
Past Managers
Future Managers
Primary source of
influence
Formal authority
Knowledge (technical
and interpersonal)
View of people
Potential problem
Primary resource
Primary
communicationpattern
Vertical
Multidirectional
Decision-making
style
Limited input for
individual decisions
Broad-based input for
joint decisions
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Evolution of 21st Century Managers (Cont.)
1-7 Table 1-1
Past Managers
Future Managers
Ethical
considerations
Afterthought
Forethought
Nature of
interpersonal
relationships
Competitive (winlose)
Cooperative (win-win)
Handling of power
and key
information
Hoard and restrict
access
Share and broaden
access
Approach to
change
Resist
Facilitate
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McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
1-8
Theory X
Theory Y
 Most people dislike work
 Work is a natural activity
 Most people must be
 People are capable of self-
coerced and threatened
before they will work
 Most people actually prefer
to be directed
direction and self-control
 Rewards cause people to
be more committed to
organizational goals
 The typical employee can
learn to accept and seek
responsibility
 People are imaginative,
creative and have ingenuity
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What is TQM?
1-9
Total Quality Management: An organizational culture
dedicated to training, continuous improvement, and
customer satisfaction
Principles of TQM
1.
2.
3.
4.
Do it right the first time to eliminate costly rework.
Listen to and learn from customers and employees.
Make continuous improvement an everyday matter.
Build teamwork, trust and mutual respect.
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The Age of Human and Social Capital
1-10
Human Capital
 The productive potential of
one’s knowledge and
actions
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Social capital
 The productive potential of
strong, trusting, and
cooperative relationships
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The Strategic Importance and Dimensions
of Human and Social Capital
1-11 Figure 1-2
Strategic
Assumption
Individual
Human Capital
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Organizational
Learning
Social Capital
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Skills & Best Practices: How to Build Human
and Social Capital
Building Human Capital
1-12
Company
Program or activity
TDIndustries
“Education is foremost at this
construction company, where all
employees—called ‘partners’—
are allowed 100%
reimbursement of tuition, fees,
and books at any statesupported college.”
Dallas
1,393 employees
A.G. Edwards
St. Louis
16,482 employees
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“The brokerage…spends
$75,000 per worker on training,
and just built AGEU, a 20,000
square foot education center for
new financial consultants”
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Skills & Best Practices: How to Build Human
and Social Capital (Cont.)
Building Social Capital
Company
1-13
Program or activity
Microsoft
Redmond, WA
36,665 employees
“The software giant…matches
charity donations up to $12,000.”
American Express
New York
43,477 employees
“The 153-year-old travel and
financial services firm…recently
reinstated 12-week sabbaticals
[so] staff can take time off to
work at nonprofits.”
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Skills & Best Practices: How to Build Human
and Social Capital (Cont.)
Building Social Capital
Company
Timberland
Stratham, NH
2,116 employees
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1-14
Program or activity
“The maker of rugged footwear
gives employees up to 40 hours
a year of paid time off for
community service.”
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Positive Organizational Behavior
1-15
 Positive Organizational Behavior (POB)
the study and improvement of employees’
positive attributes and capabilities
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Luthans’s CHOSE Model
Of Key POB Dimensions
1-16 Table 1-3
 C onfidence/self-efficacy
 H ope
 O ptimism
 S ubjective well-being
 E motional intelligence
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E-business Implications for OB
1-17
 E-business running the entire business via the
Internet
 E-Management Fast paced; Virtual teams, Networking skills
 E-communication Email use/abuse; Telecommuting promised




and drawbacks
E-leadership Involves electronically-mediated interactions in
combination with traditional face-to-face
Goal setting and feedback Web-based goal-setting/evaluation;
Risk of over control?
Organizational structure Virtual teams and organizations; Lack
of trust and loyalty in “faceless” organizations?
Job design “Sticky” work settings; Unrealistic expectations?
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E-business Implications for OB (Cont.)
1-18
 Decision making – Less time to make more decisions;




Information overload; Empowerment and participative decision
making
Knowledge management – E-training; E-learning; distance
learning: Asynchronous vs. synchronous
Speed, conflict, and stress – Does relentless speed equal
burnout?
Change and resistance to change – Stop the World, I want to
get off! Constant change equals conflict
Ethics – Net slaves (low pay with unrealistic promises of
riches); Electronic monitoring; Repetitive motion injuries;
Abuse of part-timers (no benefits, no job security); Privacy
issues
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Organizational Culture,
Socialization, and Mentoring
Learning Objectives
 Discuss the layers and functions of organizational





culture.
Describe the three general types of organizational
culture and their associated normative beliefs.
Summarize the methods used by organizations to
embed their cultures.
Describe the three phases in Feldman’s model of
organizational socialization.
Discuss the various socialization tactics used to
socialize employees.
Explain the four types of developmental networks
derived from a developmental network model of
mentoring
Chapter Two
Organizational Culture
2-1
 Organizational culture
shared values and beliefs that
underlie a company’s identity.
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A Conceptual Framework for Understanding
Organizational Culture
2-2 Figure 2-1
Organizational
Antecedents
Culture
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Organizational
structure and
practices
Group and
social
processes
Collective
Organizational
attitudes and
outcomes
behavior
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Layers of Organizational Culture
2-3
Observable
Artifacts
Espoused
Values
Basic
Underlying
Assumptions
Source: Adapted from E H Schein, Organizational Culture and
Leadership, 2nd ed (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992), p 17.
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Four Functions of Organizational Culture
2-4 Figure 2-2
Organizational
identity
Sense-making
device
Organizational
culture
Collective
commitment
Social system
stability
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Types of Organizational Culture
2-5 Table 2-1
General Types
of Culture
Normative
Beliefs
Organizational
Characteristics
Constructive
Achievement
Goal and achievement
oriented
Constructive
Selfactualizing
Value self-development and
creativity
Constructive
Humanisticencouraging
Participative, employeecentered, and supportive
Constructive
Affiliative
High priority on constructive
interpersonal relationships,
and focus on work group
satisfaction
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Types of Organizational Culture (Cont.)
2-6 Table 2-1
General Types
of Culture
Normative
Beliefs
Organizational
Characteristics
Passivedefensive
Approval
Avoid conflict, strive to be
liked by others and approval
oriented
Passivedefensive
Conventional
Conservative, bureaucratic
and people follow the rules
Passivedefensive
Dependent
Nonparticipative, centralized
decision-making, and
employees do what they’re
told
Passivedefensive
Avoidance
Negative reward system and
avoid accountability
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Types of Organizational Culture (Cont.)
2-7 Table 2-1
General Types
of Culture
Normative
Beliefs
Organizational
Characteristics
Aggressivedefensive
Oppositional
Confrontation and
negativism awarded
Aggressivedefensive
Power
Nonparticipative, take
charge of subordinates and
responsive to superiors
Aggressivedefensive
Competitive
Winning is valued and a winlose approach is used
Aggressivedefensive
Perfectionistic Perfectionistic, persistent
and hard-working
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Embedding Organizational Culture
2-8
1. Formal statements of organizational philosophy,
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
mission, vision, values, and materials used for
recruiting, selection
and socialization
The design of physical space, work
environments, and buildings
Slogans, language, acronyms, and sayings
Deliberate role modeling, training programs, teaching
and coaching by managers and supervisors
Explicit rewards, status symbols (e.g., titles),
and promotion criteria
Stories, legends, and myths about key people and
events
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Embedding Organizational Culture (Cont.)
2-9
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
The organizational activities, processes, or outcomes
that leaders pay attention to, measure, and control
Leader reactions to critical incidents and organizational
crises
The workflow and organizational structure
Organizational systems and procedures
Organizational goals and the associated criteria used
for recruitment, selection, development, promotion,
layoffs, and retirement of people
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A Model of Organizational Socialization
2-10 Figure 2-3
Phases
1. Anticipatory Socialization
Learning that occurs prior
to joining the
organization
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Perceptual and
Social Processes
• Anticipating realities
about the organization
and the new job
• Anticipating organization’s
needs for one’s skills
and abilities
• Anticipating organization’s
sensitivity to one’s needs
and values
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A Model of Organizational Socialization (Cont.)
2-11 Figure 2-3
Phases
2. Encounter
Values, skills and
attitudes start to shift
as new recruit
discovers what the
organization is truly
like
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Perception and
Social Processes
• Managing lifestyleversus-work conflicts
• Managing intergroup
role conflicts
• Seeking role definition
and clarity
• Becoming familiar
with task and group
dynamics
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A Model of Organizational Socialization (Cont.)
2-12 Figure 2-3
Phases
3. Change and acquisition
Recruit masters skills and
roles and adjusts to work
group’s values and norms
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Perception and
Social Processes
• Competing role demands
are resolved
• Critical tasks are
mastered
• Group norms and values
are internalized
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A Model of Organizational Socialization (Cont.)
Phases
Outsider
2-13 Figure 2-3
1. Anticipatory socialization
2. Encounter
3. Change and acquisition
Behavioral Outcomes
• Performs role
assignments
• Remains with
organization
• Spontaneously innovates
and cooperates
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Socialized
Insider
Affective Outcomes
• Generally satisfied
• Internally motivated to
work
• High job involvement
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Socialization Tactics
2-14 Table 2-2
Tactic
Description
Collective vs. Individual
Collective: consists of grouping
newcomers and exposing them to a
common set of experiences; Individual:
exposing each individually to a set of
unique experiences
Formal vs. Informal
Formal: Segregating newcomer from
regular organization members; Informal:
not distinguishing between newcomer
and experienced members
Sequential vs. Random
Sequential: fixed progression of steps
that culminate in the new role; Random:
ambiguous or dynamic progression
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Socialization Tactics (Cont.)
2-15 Table 2-2
Tactic
Description
Fixed vs. Variable
Fixed: provides a timetable for the
assumption of the role; Variable: does
not provide timetable
Serial vs. Disjunctive
Serial: newcomer is socialized by an
experienced member; Disjunctive: does
not use a role model
Investiture vs.
Divestiture
Investiture: affirmation of newcomer’s
incoming global and specific role
identities and attributes; Divestiture:
denial and stripping away of the
newcomer’s existing sense of self to
rebuild in the organization’s image
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Mentoring and Functions of Mentoring
2-16

Mentoring is the process of forming and
maintaining developmental relationships between a
mentor and a junior person
Functions of Mentoring
•
•
Career Functions
- Sponsorship
- Exposure-and-visibility
- Coaching
- Protection
- Challenging assignments
Psychosocial Functions
- Role modeling
- Acceptance-and-confirmation
- Counseling
- Friendship
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Developmental Networks Associated
with Mentoring
2-17 Figure 2-4
Developmental relationship diversity
Developmental relationship strength
Strong ties
Weak ties
•D2
Low
range
•D2
D1•
D1•
•P
•P
Receptive
D1•
High
range
D3•
Traditional
•D2
•
P
•D2
•
•D4
Opportunistic
Key: D, developer; P, protégé.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
McGraw-Hill
D1•
D3•
P
•D4
Entrepreneurial
Source: M Higgins and K Kram, “Reconceptualizing Mentoring at
Work: A Developmental Network Perspective,” Academy of
Management Review, April 2001, p. 270
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Skills & Best Practices: Building an
Effective Mentoring Network
2-18
1. Become the perfect protégé
2. Engage in 360-degree networking
3. Commit to assessing, building, and adjusting the
mentor network
4. Develop diverse, synergistic connections
5. Realize that change is inevitable and that all good
things come to an end
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Developing Global Managers
Learning Objectives
 Define ethnocentrism and explain what Hofstede





concluded about applying American management
theories in other countries.
Identify and describe the nine cultural dimensions
from the GLOBE project.
Draw a distinction between individualistic cultures
and collectivist cultures.
Demonstrate your knowledge of these two
distinctions: high-context versus low-context
cultures and monochronic versus polychronic
cultures.
Explain what the GLOBE project has taught us
about leadership.
Explain why US managers have a comparatively
high failure rate in foreign assignments, and identify
an OB trouble spot for each stage of the foreign
assignment cycle
Chapter Three
Cultural Influences on
Organizational Behavior
3-1 Figure 3-1
Organizational
Culture
• Economic/
technological
setting
• Political/
legal setting
• Ethnic
background
• Religion
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Societal
culture
• Customs
• Language
• Personal
values/ethics
• Attitudes
• Assumptions
• Expectations
Organizational
Behavior
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Ethnocentrism
3-2
 Ethnocentrism belief that one’s native
country, culture, language, and behavior are
superior.
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Skills & Best Practices: Becoming
Global Manager Material
3-3







Global Perspective: Focus on global business
Cultural Responsiveness: Become familiar with
many cultures
Appreciate Cultural Synergies: Learn multicultural
dynamics
Cultural Adaptability: Live and work effectively in
different cultures
Cross-Cultural Communication: Daily crosscultural interaction
Cross-Cultural Collaboration: Multicultural
teamwork
Acquire Broad Foreign Experience: Series of
foreign career assignments
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Key Cultural Dimensions
3-4






Individualistic Cultures: “I” and “me” cultures where individual
freedom and choice are given priority.
Collectivist Cultures: “We” and “us” cultures where shared
goals and interests rank higher than individual desires and
goals.
High-Context Cultures: primary meaning derived from
nonverbal cues.
Low-Context Cultures: primary meaning derived from written
and spoken words.
Monochronic time: preference for doing one thing at a time
because time is limited, precisely segmented, and schedule
driven.
Polychronic time: preference for doing more than one thing at
a time because time is flexible and multidimensional.
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Nine Basic Cultural Dimensions from
the GLOBE Project
3-5









Power distance
Uncertainty avoidance
Societal collectivism
In-group collectivism
Gender egalitarianism
Assertiveness
Future orientation
Performance orientation
Humane orientation
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Countries Ranking Highest and Lowest
on the GLOBE Cultural Dimensions
3-6 Table 3-1
Dimensions
Highest
Lowest
Power distance
Morocco, Argentina,
Thailand, Spain,
Russia
Denmark,
Netherlands, South
Africa—black
sample, Israel,
Costa Rica
Uncertainty
Avoidance
Switzerland, Sweden, Russia, Hungary,
German—former
Bolivia, Greece,
West, Denmark,
Venezuela
Australia
Societal
Collectivism
Sweden, Korea,
Japan, Singapore,
Denmark
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Greece, Hungary,
Germany—former
East, Argentina,
Italy
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Countries Ranking Highest and Lowest
on the GLOBE Cultural Dimensions (Cont.)
3-7 Table 3-1
Dimensions
Highest
Lowest
In-group
collectivism
Iran, India, Morocco,
China, Egypt
Denmark, Sweden,
New Zealand,
Netherlands,
Finland
Gender
egalitarianism
Hungary, Poland,
Slovenia, Denmark,
Sweden
South Korea,
Egypt, Morocco,
India, China
Assertiveness
Germany—former
Sweden, New
East, Austria, Greece, Zealand,
US, Spain
Switzerland, Japan,
Kuwait
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Countries Ranking Highest and Lowest
on the GLOBE Cultural Dimensions (Cont.)
3-8 Table 3-1
Dimensions
Highest
Lowest
Future orientation Singapore,
Switzerland,
Netherlands,
Canada—English
speaking, Denmark
Russia, Argentina,
Poland, Italy,
Kuwait
Performance
orientation
Singapore, Hong
Kong, New Zealand,
Taiwan, US
Russia, Argentina,
Greece, Venezuela,
Italy
Humane
orientation
Philippines, Ireland,
Malaysia, Egypt,
Indonesia
Germany—former
West, Spain,
France, Singapore,
Brazil
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Leadership Attributes Universally Liked,
Disliked, and Most Strongly Disputed
3-9 Table 3-2
Leader attributes
universally liked
Leader attributes
universally disliked
Most disputed leader
attributes
Trustworthy
Noncooperative
Subdued
Dynamic
Irritable
Intragroup conflict
avoider
Motive arouser
Egocentric
Cunning
Decisive
Ruthless
Sensitive
Intelligent
Dictatorial
Provacateaur
Dependable
Loner/self-centered
Self-effacing
Plans ahead
Willful
Excellence oriented
Team builder
Encouraging
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Reasons why US Expatriates Fail in
Foreign Assignments
3-10







Manager’s spouse cannot adjust to new
physical or cultural surroundings
Manager cannot adapt to new physical
or cultural surroundings
Family problems
Manager is emotionally immature
Manager cannot cope with foreign
duties
Manager is not technically competent
Manager lacks proper motivation for
foreign assignment
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Skills & Best Practices: Tips for
Women (and Men) for Landing Foreign Assignment
3-11




McGraw-Hill
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While still in school, pursue foreign study
opportunities and become fluent in one or
more foreign languages
Starting with the very first job interview,
clearly state your desire for a foreign
assignment
Become very knowledgeable about foreign
countries where you would like to work
Network with expatriates (both men and
women) in your company to uncover foreign
assignment opportunities
©©2006
2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Skills & Best Practices: Tips for
Women (and Men) for Landing Foreign Assignment
(Cont.)





3-12
Make sure your family fully supports a foreign
assignment
Get your boss’s support by building trust and
a strong working relationship
Be visible: make sure upper management
knows about your relevant accomplishments
and unique strengths
Stay informed about your company’s
international strategies and programs
Polish your cross-cultural communication
skills daily with foreign-born co-workers
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2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Foreign Assignment Cycle
3-13 Figure 3-2
Home Country
Experiences
Selection and training
Foreign Country
Experiences
Arrival and adjustment
Reassignment
Returning Home
and
adjusting
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Settling in and
acculturating
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Understanding Social Perception
and Managing Diversity
Learning Objectives
 Describe perception in terms of the social





information processing model.
Identify and briefly explain four managerial
implications for social perception.
Explain, according to Kelley’s model, how external
and internal causal attributions are formulated.
Demonstrate your familiarity with the demographic
trends that are creating an increasingly diverse
workforce.
Identify the barriers and challenges to managing
diversity.
Discuss the organizational practices used to
manage diversity identified by Ann Morrison
Chapter Four
Perception Defined
4-1
 Perception is the process of interpreting
one’s environment.
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2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
A Social Information Processing
Model of Perception
4-2 Figure 4-1
Stage 1
Stage 2
Selective Attention/
Comprehension
Encoding
and Simplification
Competing
environmental
stimuli:
* People
* Events
* Objects
McGraw-Hill
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A
B
C
D
E
A
Interpretation
and
categorization
C
F
F
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A Social Information Processing
Model of Perception (Cont.)
4-3 Figure 4-1
Stage 3
Stage 4
Storage and
Retention
Retrieval
and Response
Memory
McGraw-Hill
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
C
Judgments and
decisions
©©2006
2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Social Information Processing Model
Of Perception
4-4
Stage 1: Selective Attention/Comprehension
- Attention is the process of becoming aware of
something or someone
- People pay attention to salient stimuli
Stage 2: Encoding and Simplification
- Encoding is the process of interpreting
environmental stimuli by using information
contained in cognitive categories and schemata
- The same information can be interpreted
differently by people due to individual
differences
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Social Information Processing Model
of Perception (Cont.)
4-5
Stage 3: Storage and Retention
- Encoded information or stimuli is sent to longterm memory
- Long-term memory is composed of three
compartments containing categories of
information about events, semantic materials, and
people
Stage 4: Retrieval and Response
- Information is retrieved from memory when
people make judgments and decisions
McGraw-Hill
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Stereotypes
4-6
 A Stereotype is a belief about
the characteristics of a group
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Commonly Found Perceptual Errors
4-7 Table 4-1
Perceptual Error
Description
Halo
A rater forms an overall impression
about an object and then uses the
impression to bias ratings about the
object.
Leniency
A personal characteristic that leads
an individual to consistently
evaluate other people or objects in
an extremely positive fashion.
Central Tendency
The tendency to avoid all extreme
judgments and rate people and
objects as average or neutral.
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Commonly Found
Perceptual Errors (Cont.)
4-8 Table 4-1
Perceptual Error
Description
Recency Effects
The tendency to remember recent
information. If the recent
information is negative, the person
or object is evaluated negatively.
Contrast Effects
The tendency to evaluate people or
objects by comparing them with
characteristics of recently observed
people or objects.
McGraw-Hill
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Kelley’s Model of Attribution
4-9
Basic Premise: An attribution is based on the consensus,
distinctiveness, and consistency of the observed behavior.
Consensus
- Involves comparing an individual’s behavior with that of his
or her peers.
- High consistency indicates an individual is different
from peers.
Distinctiveness
- Involves comparing a person’s behavior or accomplishments
on one task with the behavior or accomplishments from
other tasks.
- Highly distinctive behavior or results represents a situation
where the current behavior or result is significantly
different from typical behavior or results on other
tasks.
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Kelley’s Model of Attribution (Cont.)
4-10
Consistency
- Involves comparing a person’s behavior or
accomplishments on a given task over time.
- High consistency implies that a person performs a
certain task the same, time after time.
Predictions
- Internal or personal attributions are made when a behavior
is associated with low consensus and distinctiveness,
and high consistency.
- External or environmental attributions are made when a
behavior is related with high consensus and
distinctiveness, and low consistency.
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Consensus
4-11 Figure 4-2
Low
A
B C D
People
High
E
A
B C D
People
E
Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984,
p 56. Used with permission.
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2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
McGraw-Hill
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Consensus
4-12 Figure 4-2
High
Low
A
B C
Tasks
D
E
A
B C
Tasks
D
E
Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984,
p 56. Used with permission.
©©2006
2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
McGraw-Hill
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Consensus
4-13 Figure 4-2
Low
High
Time
Time
Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984,
p 56. Used with permission.
©©2006
2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
McGraw-Hill
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Attributional Tendencies
4-14
Fundamental attribution bias- ignoring environment factors
that affect behavior
Self-serving bias- taking more personal responsibility for
success than failure
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The Four Layers of Diversity
4-15 Figure 4-3
Functional Level/
Classification
Geographic Location
Mgmt.
Status
Marital
Status
Parental
Status
Age
Income
Work
Content/
Field
Personal
Habits
Race
Personality
Appearance
Union
Affiliation
Sexual
Orientation
Ethnicity
Work
Experience
Work
Location
Physical
Ability
Recreational
Habits
Division/
Dept./
Unit/
Group
Religion
Educational
Background
Seniority
Source: L Gardenswartz and A Rowe, Diverse Teams
at Work: Capitalizing on the Power of Diversity (New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1994), p. 33
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Projected Entrants and Departures in the US
Workforce from 2000 to 2010
4-16 Table 4-2
Percent Entrants
2000-2010
Percent Leavers
2000-2010
Total
Men
Women
100
49.6
50.4
100
55.4
44.6
White
(Non-Hispanic)
60.6
77.4
African-American
13.7
11.8
Hispanic
17.9
7.2
Asian and
Other Races
7.8
3.6
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Barriers and Challenges to
Managing Diversity
4-17
Inaccurate stereotypes and prejudice
2. Ethnocentrism
3.
Poor career planning
4.
An unsupportive and hostile working environment for diverse
employees
5. Lack of political savvy on the part of diverse employees
6.
Difficulty in balancing career and family issues
7.
Fears of reverse discrimination
8.
Diversity is not seen as an organizational priority
9.
The need to revamp the organization’s performance appraisal
and reward system
10. Resistance to change
1.
McGraw-Hill
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Common Diversity Practices:
Accountability Practices
4-18 Table 4-3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Top management’s personal intervention
Internal advocacy groups
Emphasis on EEO statistics, profiles
Inclusion of diversity in performance evaluation
goals, ratings
Inclusion of diversity in promotion, decision criteria
Inclusion of diversity in management succession
planning
Work and family policies
Policies against racism, sexism
Internal audit or attitude survey
Active AA/EEO committee, office
McGraw-Hill
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2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Common Diversity Practices:
Development Practices
4-19 Table 4-3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Diversity training programs
Networks and support groups
Development programs for all high-potential
managers
Informal networking activities
Job rotation
Formal mentoring program
Informal mentoring program
Entry development programs for all high-potential
new hires
Internal training (such as personal safety or
language)
Recognition events, awards
McGraw-Hill
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2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Common Diversity Practices:
Recruitment Practices
4-20 Table 4-3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Targeted recruitment of non-managers
Key outside hires
Extensive public exposure on diversity (AA)
Corporate image as liberal, progressive, or
benevolent
Partnerships with educational institutions
Recruitment incentives such as cash supplements
Internships (such as INROADS)
Publications or PR products that highlight diversity
Targeted recruitment of managers
Partnerships with nontraditional groups
McGraw-Hill
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2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Appreciating Individual
Differences: Self-Concept, Personality,
Emotions
Learning Objectives
 Distinguish between self-esteem and self-efficacy.
 Contrast high and low self-monitoring individuals,




and describe resulting problems each may have.
Explain the social learning model of selfmanagement.
Identify and describe the Big Five personality
dimensions, specify which one is correlated most
strongly with job performance, and describe the
proactive personality.
Explain the difference between an internal and
external locus of control.
Explain the concepts of emotional contagion and
emotional labor, and identify the four components of
emotional intelligence
Chapter Five
An OB Model for Studying
Individual Differences
5-1 Figure 5-1
The Unique Individual
Personality
traits
Forms of SelfExpression
Self-Management
Attitudes
Self Concept
• Self-esteem
• Self-efficacy
• Self-monitoring
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Abilities
Emotions
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2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
From Self-Concept to Self-Management
5-2
 Self-concept is a person’s self-perception as
a physical, social, spiritual being.
 Cognitions are a person’s knowledge,
opinions, or beliefs.
 Self-esteem is one’s overall self-evaluation.
McGraw-Hill
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2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Skills & Best Practices: How to Build
Self-Esteem in Yourself and Others
5-3
1. Live consciously
2. Be self-accepting
3. Take personal responsibility
4. Be self-assertive
5. Live purposefully
6. Have personal integrity
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2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Self-Efficacy (“I can do that.”)
5-4
 Self-efficacy is the belief in
one’s ability to do a task
McGraw-Hill
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Self-Efficacy Beliefs Pave the Way
for Success or Failure
Sources of SelfEfficacy Beliefs
5-5 Figure 5-2
Results
Feedback
High
Prior
experience
“I know I can do
this job
Behavior
models
Self-efficacy
Low
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
McGraw-Hill
Success
Beliefs
Persuasion
From
Others
Assessment
Of Physical
Emotional
State
Behavior
Patterns
“I don’t think I
can get the job
done.”
Behavior
Patterns
Failure
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Self-Monitoring
5-6
 Self-monitoring is observing
one’s own behavior and
adapting it to the situation
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A Social Learning Model of
Self-Management
5-7 Figure 5-3
Person
(Psychological self)
Behavior
Situational cues
McGraw-Hill
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Consequences
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Covey’s Seven Habits: An Agenda for
Managerial Self-Improvement
5-8 Table 5-1
1. Be proactive
2. Being with the end in mind
3. Put first things first
4. Think win/win
5. Seek first to understand, then to be understood
6. Synergize
7. Sharpen the saw
McGraw-Hill
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2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Big Five Personality Dimensions
5-9 Table 5-2
Personality Dimension
Characteristics
Extraversion
Outgoing, talkative, sociable,
assertive
Agreeableness
Trusting, good-natured,
cooperative, softhearted
Conscientiousness
Dependable, responsible,
achievement oriented, persistent
Relaxed, secure, unworried
Emotional stability
Openness to experience
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Intellectual, imaginative, curious,
broad-minded
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Proactive Personality
5-10
 A Proactive
Personality is an
action-oriented person
who shows initiative
and perseveres to
change things.
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Locus of Control
5-11
Internal locus of control: belief that one controls
key events and consequences in one’s life.
External locus of control: One’s life outcomes
attributed to environmental factors such
as luck or fate.
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2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Skills & Best Practices: How Lucky
People Make Their Own Luck
5-12
1. Maximize chance opportunities
2. Listen to your lucky hunches
3. Expect good fortune
4. Turn bad luck into good
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2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Seven Major Mental Abilities
5-13 Table 5-3
Ability
Description
Verbal comprehension
Understanding what words mean
and readily comprehending what
is read
Word fluency
Ability to produce isolated words
that fulfill symbolic or structural
requirements
Numerical
Ability to make quick and
accurate arithmetic computations
such as adding and subtracting
Spatial
Able to perceive spatial patterns
and to visualize how geometric
shapes would look if transformed
in shape and position
McGraw-Hill
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Seven Major Mental Abilities (Cont.)
5-14 Table 5-3
Ability
Description
Memory
Having good memory for paired
words, symbols, lists of numbers,
or other associated items
Perceptual speed
Ability to perceive figures,
identify similarities and
differences, and carry out tasks
involving visual perception
Inductive reasoning
Ability to reason from specifics to
general conclusions
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Positive and Negative Emotions
5-15
Negative emotions (Goal
incongruent):
- Anger
- Guilt/shame
- Envy/jealousy
- Fright/anxiety
- Sadness
- Disgust
Positive emotions (Goal
congruent)
- Happiness/joy
- Love/affection
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- Pride
- Relief
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Emotional Intelligence
5-16
 Emotional Intelligence is the ability to manage
oneself and interact with others in mature and
constructive ways
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Skills & Best Practices: How to Develop
Personal and Social Competence Through
Emotional Intelligence
5-17
Personal Competence
•
Self-Awareness
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Emotional self-awareness
Accurate self-assessment
Self-confidence
Self-Management
•
Social Competence
Emotional self-control
Transparency
Adaptability
Achievement
Initiative
Optimism
Social Awareness
•
•
•
•
Relationship Management
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
McGraw-Hill
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Empathy
Organizational awareness
Service
Inspirational leadership
Influence
Developing others
Change catalyst
Conflict management
Building bonds
Teamwork and collaboration
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Motivation I: Needs, Job Design
Intrinsic Motivation, and Satisfaction
Learning Objectives
 Discuss the job performance model of motivation.
 Contrast Maslow’s and McClelland’s need theories.
 Describe the mechanistic, motivational, biological,
and perpetual-motor approaches to job design.
 Review the four intrinsic rewards underlying intrinsic
motivation and discuss how managers can cultivate
intrinsic motivation in others.
 Discuss the causes and consequences of job
satisfaction.
 Critique the four hypotheses that explain the nature
of work-family relationships.
Chapter Six
Motivation Defined
6-1
 Motivation: psychological
processes that arouse
and direct goal-directed
behavior
McGraw-Hill
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A Job Performance Model of Motivation
6-2 Figure 6-1
Individual Inputs
Skills
Ability, Job knowledge
Dispositions & Traits
Emotions, Moods, & Affect
Beliefs & Values
Motivational Processes
Arousal
Attention
&
Direction
Intensity
&
Persistence
Motivated
Behaviors
Job Context
Physical Environment
Task Design
Rewards & Reinforcement
Supervisory Support &
Coaching
Social Norms
Organizational Culture
McGraw-Hill
Enable, Limit
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
A Job Performance Model of
Motivation (Cont.)
6-3 Figure 6-1
Skills
Individual
Inputs
Motivated Behaviors
Motivational
Processes
Job
Context
McGraw-Hill
Focus: Direction, What we do
Intensity: Effort, how hard
we try
Quality: Task strategies, the
way we do it
Duration: Persistence, how
long we stick to it
Performance
Enable, Limit
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Needs Theories of Motivation
6-4
 Needs: Physiological or psychological deficiencies
that arouse behavior.
 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory: Motivation is a
function of five basic needs- physiological, safety,
love, esteem, and self-actualization.
 McClelland’s Need Theory: The needs for
achievement, affiliation, and power affect behavior.
McGraw-Hill
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McClelland’s Need Theory
6-5
 Need for achievement: Desire to accomplish
something difficult.
 Need for affiliation: Desire to spend time in social
relationships and activities.
 Need for power: Desire to Influence, coach, teach,
or encourage others to achieve.
McGraw-Hill
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Motivating Employees Through
Job Design
6-6
1. The Mechanistic Approach focuses on identifying the
most efficient way to perform a job. Employees are trained
and rewarded to perform their jobs accordingly.
2. Motivational Approaches these techniques (job
enlargement, job rotation, job enrichment, and job
characteristics model) attempt to improve employees’
affective and attitudinal reactions and behavioral
outcomes.
3. Biological and Perceptual- Motor Approaches
Biological techniques focus on reducing employees’
physical strain, effort, fatigue, and health complaints. The
Perceptual-Motor Approach emphasizes the reliability of
work outcomes by examining error rates, accidents, and
workers’ feedback about facilities and equipment.
McGraw-Hill
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Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Model
6-7 Figure 6-2
Motivators
No Satisfaction
Satisfaction
Jobs that do not
offer achievement,
recognition,
stimulating work,
responsibility,
and advancement.
Jobs offering
achievement,
recognition,
stimulating work,
responsibility,
and advancement.
McGraw-Hill
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Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene
Model (Cont.)
6-8 Figure 6-2
Hygiene Factors
Dissatisfaction
No Dissatisfaction
Jobs with poor
company policies
and administration,
technical supervision,
salary, interpersonal
relationships with
supervisors, and
working conditions.
Jobs with good
company policies
and administration,
technical supervision,
salary, interpersonal
relationships with
supervisors, and
working conditions.
McGraw-Hill
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The Job Characteristics Model
6-9 Figure 6-3
Critical
psychological
tastes
Core job
characteristics
• Skill variety
Outcomes
• High intrinsic work
• Experienced
• Task identity
meaningfulness of
• Task significance
the work
motivation
• High growth
satisfaction
• High general job
• Experienced
• Autonomy
responsibility for
satisfaction
• High work
outcomes of the
effectiveness
work.
• Knowledge of the
• Feedback from job
actual results of
the work activities
Moderators
McGraw-Hill
1.
Knowledge and skill
2.
Growth need strength
3.
Context satisfactions
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Skills & Best Practices: Steps for
Applying the Job Characteristics Model
6-10
1. Diagnose the level of employee motivation and
job satisfaction and consider redesigning jobs
when motivation ranges from low to
moderately high.
2. Determine whether job redesign is appropriate
in a given context.
3. Redesign jobs by including employees’ input.
McGraw-Hill
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Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
6-11

Intrinsic
Motivation:
motivation caused
by positive internal
feelings.
McGraw-Hill

Extrinsic
Motivation:
motivation caused
by the desire to
attain specific
outcomes.
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
A Model of Intrinsic Motivation
6-12 Figure 6-5
Opportunity
rewards
Accomplishment
rewards
From
task
activities
Sense of
choice
Sense of
competence
From
task
purpose
Sense of
meaningfulness
Sense of
progress
McGraw-Hill
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Job Satisfaction Defined
6-13
 Job satisfaction: an
affective or emotional
response to one’s job
McGraw-Hill
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The Causes of Job Satisfaction
6-14
 Need fulfillment: satisfaction is determined by the extent to




which the characteristics of a job allow an individual to fulfill
his or her needs
Discrepancies: satisfaction is a result of met expectations
Value attainment: satisfaction results from the perception
that a job allows for fulfillment of individual’s important work
values
Equity: satisfaction: is a function of how “fairly” an individual
is treated at work
Dispositional/Genetic Components: satisfaction is partly a
function of both personal traits and genetic factors
McGraw-Hill
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Correlates of Job Satisfaction
6-15 Table 6-1
Variables Related with
Satisfaction
Direction of
Relationship
Strength of
Relationship
Motivation
Positive
Moderate
Job involvement
Positive
Moderate
Organizational citizenship
behavior
Positive
Moderate
Organizational Commitment
Positive
Strong
Absenteeism
Negative
Weak
Tardiness
Negative
Weak
Turnover
Negative
Moderate
Heart disease
Negative
Moderate
Perceived Stress
Negative
Strong
Pro-union voting
Negative
Moderate
Job performance
Positive
Moderate
Life satisfaction
Positive
Moderate
Mental Health
Positive
Moderate
McGraw-Hill
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Skills & Best Practices: Telltale Signs
You Should Look for Another Job
6-16
 Current job’s requirements aren’t a good match with your





best skills.
Job doesn’t adequately meet your needs in areas you
value, such as work-family balance, work location and
compensation.
Requests for advancement or new opportunities are
consistently ignored or only half met.
Is work making you miserable? Family and friends tell
you that your job has changed you for the worse.
Your job ranks low on a “joy and meaning” scale.
Your standing in the office has been diminished—for
example, key clients or vendors no longer deal with you.
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Hypotheses Regarding Work-Family
Relationships
6-17
1. Compensation Effect
2. Segmentation Hypothesis
3. Spillover Model
4. Work-Family Conflict
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Motivation II: Equity,
Expectancy, and Goal Setting
Learning Objectives
 Discuss the role of perceived inequity in





employee motivation.
Describe the practical lessons derived from
equity theory.
Explain Vroom’s expectancy theory.
Describe the practical implications of
expectancy theory.
Identify five practical lessons to be learned
from goal-setting research.
Specify issues that should be addressed
before implementing a motivational
program.
Chapter Seven
Negative and Positive Inequity
7-1 Figure 7-1
A. An Equitable Situation
Other
Self
$2
= $2 per hour
1 hour
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= $2 per hour
2 hours
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Negative and Positive Inequity (Cont.)
7-2 Figure 7-1
B. Negative Inequity
Self
$2
= $2 per hour
1 hour
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Other
$3
= $3 per hour
1 hour
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Negative and Positive Inequity (Cont.)
7-3 Figure 7-1
C. Positive Inequity
Other
Self
$3
= $3 per hour
1 hour
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$2
= $1 per hour
1 hour
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Equity Sensitivity
7-4
Equity Sensitivity is an individual’s tolerance for
negative and positive equity.
• Benevolents
• Sensitives
• Entitleds
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Organizational Justice
7-5
 Distributive Justice: the
perceived fairness of how
resources and rewards are
distributed.
 Procedural Justice: the
perceived fairness of the
processes and procedures
used to make allocation
decisions.
 Interactional Justice:
extent to which people feel
fairly treated when
procedures are
implemented.
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Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Concepts
7-6
Expectancy: Belief that effort leads to a
specific level of performance
Instrumentality: A performance  outcome
perception.
Valence: The Value of a reward or outcome
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Managerial Implications of
Expectancy Theory
7-7 Table 7-1
Determine the outcomes employees value
Identify good performance so appropriate behavior
can be rewarded
Make sure employees can achieve targeted levels of
performance
Link desired outcomes to targeted performance levels
Make sure changes in outcomes are large enough to
motivate high effort
Monitor the reward system for inequalities
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Organizational Implications of
Expectancy Theory
7-8 Table 7-1
Reward people for desired performance and do not
keep pay decisions secret
Design challenging jobs
Tie some rewards to group accomplishments to build
teamwork and encourage cooperation
Reward managers for creating, monitoring, and
maintaining expectancies, instrumentalities, and
outcomes that lead to high effort and goal attainment
Monitor employee motivation through interviews or
anonymous questionnaires
Accommodate individual differences by building
flexibility into the motivation program
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Four Prerequisites to Linking
Performances and Rewards
7-9
1.
2.
3.
4.
Managers need to develop and communicate performance
standards to employees.
Managers need valid and accurate performance ratings
with which to compare employees.
Managers need to determine the relative mix of individual
versus team contribution to performance and then reward
accordingly.
Managers should use the performance ratings to
differentially allocate rewards among employees.
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How Does Goal Setting Work?
7-10
1. Goals direct attention.
2. Goals regulate effort.
3. Goals increase persistence.
4. Goals foster the development and application of
task strategies and action plans.
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Insights from Goal Setting Research
7-11
1. Difficult goals lead to higher performance
2. Specific, difficult goals lead to higher
performance for simple rather than complex
tasks.
3. Feedback enhances the effect of specific,
difficult goals.
4. Participative goals, assigned goals, and self-set
goals are equally effective.
5. Goal commitment and monetary incentives
affect goal-setting outcomes.
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Relationship Between Goal Difficulty
and Performance
7-12 Figure 7-2
Performance
High
B
A
C
Low
Low
Moderate
Performance
Challenging
A)
Committed individuals with adequate ability
B)
Committed individuals who are working at
capacity
C)
Individuals who lack commitment to high
goals
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Impossible
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Guidelines for Writing SMART Goals
7-13 Table 7-2
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Results oriented
Time bound
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Skills & Best Practices: Managerial
Actions for Enhancing Goal Commitment
7-14
1.
2.
3.
4.
Provide valued outcomes for goal accomplishment.
Raise employees’ self-efficacy about meeting goals by:
1. Providing adequate training
2. Role modeling desired behaviors and actions
3. Persuasively communicating confidence in the
employees ability to attain the goal
Have employees make a public commitment to the goal.
Communicate an inspiring vision and explain how
individual goals relate to accomplishing the vision.
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Skills & Best Practices: Managerial
Actions for Enhancing Goal Commitment (Cont.)
7-15
5. Allow employees to participate in setting the
goals.
6. Behave supportively rather than punitively.
7. Break a long-term goal (i.e., a yearly goal) into
short-term sub-goals.
8. Ensure that employees have the resources
required to accomplish the goal.
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Improving Performance with
Feedback, Rewards, and Positive Reinforcement
Learning Objectives
 Specify the two basic functions of feedback and





three sources of feedback.
Define upward feedback and 360-degree feedback,
and summarize the general tips for giving good
feedback.
Briefly explain the four different organizational
reward norms.
Summarize the research lessons about pay for
performance, and explain why rewards often fail to
motivate employees.
State Throndike’s “law of effect” and explain
Skinner’s distinction between respondent and
operant behavior.
Demonstrate your knowledge of positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment,
and extinction and explain behavior shaping
Chapter Eight
Bolstering the Job Performance Cycle
With Feedback, Rewards and Reinforcement
8-1 Figure 8-1
Timely and
instructive
feedback
Ability
Effort
Results
• Learning
• Personal development
• Stable, strong job
performance
Properly
administered
rewards and
positive reinforcement
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Feedback
8-2
 Feedback: Objective
information about
performance.
 Functions of feedback:


Instructional
Motivational
 Three Sources of
feedback:



Others
Task
Oneself
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Nontraditional Feedback
8-3
 Upward feedback: employees evaluate their boss.
 360-degree feedback: comparison of anonymous
feedback from one’s superior, subordinates, and
peers with self-perceptions.
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Popularity of Nontraditional Feedback
8-4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Traditional performance appraisal systems have created
widespread dissatisfaction.
Team-based organization structures are replacing traditional
hierarchies.
Multiple-rater systems are said to make feedback more valid
than single-source feedback.
Advanced computer network technology (the Internet and
company Intranets) greatly facilitates multiple-rater systems.
Bottom-up feedback meshes nicely with the trend toward
participative management and employee empowerment.
Co-workers and lower-level employees are said to know more
about a manager’s strengths and limitations than the boss.
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Why Feedback Fails
8-5
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Feedback is used to punish, embarrass, or put down
employees.
Those receiving the feedback see it as irrelevant to their
work.
Feedback information is provided too late to do any good.
People receiving feedback believe it relates to matters
beyond their control.
Employees complain about wasting too much time
collecting and recording feedback data.
Feedback recipients complain about feedback being too
complex or difficult to understand.
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Skills & Best Practices: How to Make
Sure Feedback Gets Results
8-6
 Relate feedback to existing performance goals






and clear expectations.
Give specific feedback tied to observable
behavior or measurable results.
Channel feedback toward key result areas.
Give feedback as soon as possible.
Give positive feedback for improvement, not just
final results.
Focus feedback on performance, not
personalities.
Base feedback on accurate and credible
information.
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Key Factors in Organizational
Reward Systems
8-7 Figure 8-2
Organization’s Reward
Norms
• Profit maximization
• Equity
• Equality
• Need
Desired Outcomes
• Attract
• Motivate
• Develop
• Satisfy
• Retain
Types of Rewards
• Financial/material
(extrinsic)
• Social (extrinsic)
• Psychic (intrinsic)
Distribution Criteria
• Results
• Behavior
• Other factors
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Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards
8-8
 Extrinsic rewards:
financial, material, or
social rewards from
the environment.
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 Intrinsic rewards:
Self-granted,
psychic rewards
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Organizational Reward Norms
8-9
 Reward equity
norm: rewards
should be tied to
contributions.
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 Reward equality
norm: everyone
should get the same
rewards.
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Why Rewards Fail to Motivate
8-10
1. Too much emphasis on monetary rewards
2. Rewards lack an “appreciation effect”
3. Extensive benefits become entitlements
4. Counterproductive behavior is rewarded
5. Too long a delay between performance and
rewards
6. Too many one-size-fits-all rewards
7. Use of one-shot rewards with a short-lived
motivational impact
8. Continued use of demotivating practices
such as layoffs, across-the-board
raises and cuts, and excessive
executive compensation
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The Use and Effectiveness of
Modern Incentive Pay Plans
8-11 Table 8-1
Plan Type
Have
Highly Effective
74%
20%
Special one-time spot
awards
42
38
Individual incentives
39
27
Long-term incentives
(executive level)
32
44
Lump-sum merit pay
28
19
Competency-based
pay
22
31
Profit-sharing (apart
from retirement
program)
22
43
ESOP* stock plan
21
33
Annual Bonus
*Employee Stock Ownership Plan
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The Use and Effectiveness of
Modern Incentive Pay Plans (Cont.)
8-12 Table 8-1
Plan Type
Have
Highly Effective
Suggestion/proposal
programs
17
19
Team-based pay
15
29
Long-term incentives
(below executive level)
13
43
Skill-/knowledge-based
pay
12
58
Group incentives (not
team-based)
11
24
Pay for quality
9
29
Gainsharing
8
38
Special key-contributor
programs (before the fact)
7
55
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Contingent Consequences in
Operant Conditioning
Behavior-Consequence Relationship
8-13 Figure 8-3
Nature of Consequences
Positive or Pleasing
Negative or Displeasing
Punishment
Contingent Positive Reinforcement
Behavioral outcome:
Presentation Behavioral outcome:
Target behavior occurs Target behavior occurs
more often.
less often.
Punishment
Negative Reinforcement
(Response
Cost)
Contingent
Behavioral outcome:
Behavioral
outcome:
Withdrawal
Target behavior occurs
Target behavior occurs
more often.
less often.
(no contingent consequence)
Extinction
Behavioral outcome:
Target behavior occurs less often
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Schedules of Reinforcement
8-14 Table 8-2
Schedule
Description
Continuous (CRF)
Reinforcer follows every response
Intermittent
Reinforcer does not follow every response
Fixed Ratio (FR)
A fixed number of responses must be
emitted before reinforcement occurs
Variable Ratio (VR)
A varying or random number of responses
must be emitted before reinforcement
occurs
Fixed Interval (FI)
The first response after a specific period of
time has elapsed is reinforced
Variable Interval (VI)
The first response after varying or random
periods of time have elapsed is reinforced
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Skills & Best Practices: How to Effectively
Shape Job Behavior
8-15
1. Accommodate the process of behavioral change.
2. Define new behavior patterns specifically.
3. Give individuals feedback on their performance.
4. Reinforce behavior as quickly as possible.
5. Use powerful reinforcement.
6. Use a continuous reinforcement schedule.
7. Use a variable reinforcement schedule for maintenance.
8. Reward teamwork—not competition.
9. Make all rewards contingent on performance.
10. Never take good performance for granted.
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Making Decisions
Learning Objectives
 Compare and contrast the rational model of





decision making and Simon’s normative model.
Discuss knowledge management techniques used
by companies to increase knowledge sharing.
Explain the model of decision-making styles and the
stages of the creative process.
Summarize the pros and cons of involving groups in
the decision-making process.
Explain how participative management affects
performance.
Contrast brainstorming, the nominal group
technique, the Delphi technique, and computeraided decision making.
Chapter Nine
The Rational Model of Decision Making
9-1
 The Rational Model: logical
four-step approach to decision
making.




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Identifying the problem
Generating alternative
solutions
Selecting a solution
Implementing and
evaluating the solution
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Skills & Best Practices: Diagnostic
Questions to Assess Whether or not Your
Decisions are Ethical
9-2
1. Am I being honest—telling the truth, the whole truth?
2. Does the decision parallel my personal values?
3. Will I be keeping all promises, commitments, contracts,
etc.?
4. Is my decision permitting me to remain faithful?
5. Would I have the other person (entity, etc.) do this to me?
6. Am I willing to accept responsibility for this decision?
7. Is it safe—that is, safe from liability, safe from physical, or
emotional hurt, safe from danger?
8. Does it promote excellence?
9. Is it fair?
10. Is my decision a result of genuine concern for someone
else?
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Simon’s Normative Model
of Decision Making
9-3
 The Normative Model:
based on the premise
that decision making is
not rational.
 Decision making is
characterized by:



Limited information
processing
Judgmental
heuristics
Sacrificing
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Judgmental Heuristics
9-4
 Judgmental heuristics: rules of thumb or shortcuts
that people use to reduce information processing
demands.
 Availability heuristic: tendency to base decisions
on information readily available in memory.
 Representativeness heuristic: tendency to assess
the likelihood of an event occurring based on
impressions about similar occurrences.
 Satisficing: choosing a solution that meets a
minimum standard of acceptance.
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Improving Decision Making through
Effective Knowledge Management
9-5
 Knowledge management: implementing
systems and practices that increase the
sharing of knowledge and information
throughout an organization.
 Tacit knowledge:
information gained through
experience that is difficult to
express and formalize.
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 Explicit knowledge:
information that can be
easily put into words and
shared with others.
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Decision-Making Styles
9-6 Figure 9-1
High
Analytical
Conceptual
Directive
Behavioral
Low
Tasks and Technical
Concerns
People and Social
Concerns
Value Orientation
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Escalation of Commitment
9-7
 Escalation of commitment: sticking to an
ineffective course of action too long.
 Four reasons for escalation of
commitment:




Psychological and social determinants
Organizational determinants
Project characteristics
Contextual determinants
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Skills & Best Practices: Recommendations
To Reduce Escalation of Commitment
9-8
 Set minimum targets for performance, and have





decision makers compare their performance with
these targets.
Have different individuals make the initial and
subsequent decisions about a project.
Encourage decision makers to become less egoinvolved with a project.
Provide more frequent feedback about project
completion and costs.
Reduce the risk or penalties of failure.
Make decision makers aware of the costs of
persistence.
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Creativity
9-9
 Creativity: process of developing something
new or unique.
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Skills & Best Practices: Avoid These
Creativity Killers
9-10
 Lack of discretion and autonomy
 Fragmented work schedule in which
people are frequently interrupted
 Insufficient resources to get the job done
 A focus on short-term goals
 Time pressures
 A lack of collaboration and coordination
among employees
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Advantages and Disadvantages of
Group-Aided Decision Making
9-11 Table 9-1
Advantages
Disadvantages
Greater pool of knowledge
Social pressure
Different perspectives
Domination by a vocal few
Greater comprehension
Logrolling
Increased acceptance
Goal displacement
Training ground
“Groupthink”
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Participative Management
9-12
 Participative Management: involving employees in
various forms of decision making.




Setting goals
Making decisions
Solving problems
Making changes in the organization
 Helps employees fulfill three basic needs:
 Autonomy
 Meaningfulness of work
 Interpersonal contact
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Group Problem Solving Techniques
9-13
 Brainstorming: process to generate a
quantity of ideas.
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Seven Rules for Brainstorming
9-14
1. Defer judgment
2. Build on the ideas of others
3. Encourage wild ideas
4. Go for quantity over quality
5. Be visual
6. Stay focused on the topic
7. One conversation at a time
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Group Problem Solving
Techniques (Cont.)
9-15
 The Nominal Group Technique: process to
generate ideas and evaluate solutions.
 Delphi technique: process to generate ideas
from physically dispersed experts.
 Computer-aided decision making: reduces
consensus roadblocks while collecting more
information in a shorter period of time.
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Effective Groups and
Teamwork
Learning Objectives
 Describe the five stages of Tuckman’s theory of





group development.
Contrast roles and norms, and specify four reasons
norms are enforced in organizations.
Explain how a workgroup becomes a team, and
identify five teamwork competencies.
List at least four things managers can do to build
trust.
Describe self-managed teams and virtual teams.
Describe groupthink, and identify at least four of its
symptoms.
Chapter Ten
Formal and Informal Groups
10-1
 Group: two or more freely interacting people
with shared norms and goals and a common
identity.
 Formal group: formed by the organization.
 Informal group: formed by friends.
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Formal Groups Fulfill Organizational
and Individual Functions
10-2 Table 10-1
Organizational Functions
Accomplish complex, interdependent tasks that are beyond the
capabilities of individuals.
Generate new or creative ideas and solutions.
Coordinate interdepartmental efforts.
Provide a problem-solving mechanism for complex problems
requiring varied information and assessments.
Implement complex decisions.
Socialize and train newcomers.
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Formal Groups Fulfill Organizational
and Individual Functions (Cont.)
10-3 Table 10-1
Individual Functions
Satisfy the individual’s need for affiliation.
Develop, enhance, and confirm the individual’s self—esteem
and sense of identity.
Give individuals an opportunity to test and share their
perceptions of social reality.
Reduce the individual’s anxieties and feelings of insecurity and
powerlessness.
Provide a problem-solving mechanism for personal and
interpersonal problems.
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Tuckman’s Five-Stage Theory of Group
Development
10-4 Figure 10-1
Performing
Adjourning
Norming
Storming
Return to
Independence
Forming
Dependence/
interdependence
Independence
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Tuckman’s Five-Stage Theory of Group
Development (Cont.)
10-5 Figure 10-1
Forming
Individual
Issues
Group
Issues
“How do
I fit in?”
Storming
“What do “How can I
“What’s my the others
best
role here?” expect me perform my
to do?”
role?”
“Why are
we fighting
“Why are over who is
we
in charge
here?”
and who
does
what?”
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Norming
“Can we
agree on
roles and
work as a
team?”
“Can we do
the job
properly?”
Performing
“What’s
next?”
“Can we
help
members
transition
out?”
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Group Member Roles
10-6 Table 10-2
Task Roles
Description
Intiator
Suggests new goal or ideas
Information seeker/giver
Clarifies key issues
Opinion seeker/giver
Clarifies pertinent values
Elaborator
Promotes greater understanding through
examples or exploration of implications
Coordinator
Pulls together ideas and suggestions
Orienter
Keeps group headed toward its stated goal(s).
Evaluator
Tests groups accomplishments with various
criteria such as logic and practicality
Energizer
Prods group to move along or to accomplish
more
Performs routine duties
Procedural technician
Recorder
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Performs “group memory” function by
documenting discussion and outcomes
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Group Member Roles (Cont.)
10-7 Table 10-2
Maintenance Roles
Description
Encourager
Fosters group solidarity by accepting and
praising various points of view
Harmonizer
Mediates conflict through reconciling or humor
Compromiser
Helps resolve conflict by meeting others “half
way”
Gatekeeper
Encouragers all group members to participate
Standard setter
Evaluates the quality of group process
Commentator
Records and comments on group
processes/dynamics
Follower
Serves as a passive audience
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Norms
10-8
 Norm: shared attitudes, opinions, feelings, or actions
that guide social behavior.
 How norms are developed:




Explicit statements by supervisors or co-workers
Critical events in the group’s history
Primacy
Carryover behaviors from past situations
 Why norms are enforced:
 Help the group or organization survive
 Clarify or simplify behavioral expectations
 Help individuals avoid embarrassing situations
 Clarify the group’s or organization’s central values
and/or unique identity
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Teams
10-9
 Team: small group with complementary skills who
hold themselves mutually accountable for common
purpose, goals, and approach.
 A group becomes a team when the following are
met:





Leadership becomes a shared activity
Accountability shifts from strictly individual to both
individual and collective
The group develops its own purpose or mission
Problem solving becomes a way of life, not a part-time
activity
Effectiveness is measured by the group’s collective
outcomes and products
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Trust
10-10
 Trust: reciprocal faith in other’ intentions and
behavior.
 Three Dimensions of Trust:



Overall trust
Emotional trust
Reliableness
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How to Build Trust
10-11
1. Communication.
2. Support.
3. Respect.
4. Fairness.
5. Predictability.
6. Competence.
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Indirect Influence Tactics of
Self-Managed Teams
10-12
 Relating
 Scouting
 Persuading
 Empowering
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Virtual Teams
10-13
 Virtual team: information technology allows
group members in different locations to
conduct business.
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Threats to Group and
Team Effectiveness
10-14
 Groupthink: Janis’s term for cohesive in-group’s
unwillingness to realistically view alternatives.
 Symptoms:








Invulnerability
Inherent morality
Rationalization
Stereotyped views of opposition
Self-censorship
Illusion of unanimity
Peer pressure
Mindguards
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Threats to Group and
Team Effectiveness (Cont.)
10-15
 Social Loafing: decrease in individual effort
as group size increases.
 Explanations:




Equity of effort
Loss of personal accountability
Motivational loss due to sharing of rewards
Coordination loss as more people perform the
task
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Managing Conflict
and Negotiation
Learning Objectives
 Define the term conflict, distinguish between





functional and dysfunctional conflict, and identify
three desired outcomes of conflict.
Define personality conflicts, and explain how they
should be managed.
Discuss the role of in-group thinking in intergroup
conflict, and explain what can be done to avoid
cross-cultural conflict.
Explain how managers can program functional
conflict, and identify the five conflict handling styles.
Identify and describe at least four alternative
dispute resolution (ADR) techniques.
Draw a distinction between distributive and
integrative negotiation, and explain the concept of
added-value negotiation.
Chapter Eleven
Conflict
11-1
 Conflict: one party perceives its interests are
being opposed or set back by another party.
 Functional conflict: serves organization’s
interests.
 Dysfunctional conflict: threatens
organization’s interests.
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Antecedents of Conflict
11-2
 Incompatible personalities






or value systems.
Overlapping or unclear job
boundaries.
Competition for limited
resources.
Interdepartment/intergroup
competition.
Inadequate
communication.
Interdependent tasks.
Organizational complexity.
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Antecedents of Conflict (Cont.)
11-3
 Unreasonable or unclear





policies, standards, or
rules.
Unreasonable deadlines or
extreme time pressure.
Collective decision making
Decision making by
consensus.
Unmet expectations.
Unresolved or suppressed
conflict.
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Desired Outcomes of Conflict
11-4
1.
Agreement
2.
Stronger relationships
3.
Learning
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Personality Conflict
11-5
 Personality conflict:
interpersonal opposition
driven by personal dislike or
disagreement.
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Skills & Best Practices: How to Deal with
Personality Conflicts
11-6
Tips for Employees Having a Personality Conflict
All employees need to be familiar with and follow company policies
for diversity, antidiscrimination, and sexual harassment
Communicate directly with the other person to resolve the perceived
conflict
Avoid dragging coworkers into the conflict.
If dysfunctional conflict persists, seek help from direct supervisors or
human resource specialists
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Skills & Best Practices: How to Deal with
Personality Conflicts (Cont.)
11-7
Tips for Third-Party Observers of a Personality
Conflict
All employees need to be familiar with and follow company policies
for diversity, antidiscrimination, and sexual harassment
Do not take sides in someone else’s personality conflict
Suggest the parties work things out themselves in a constructive
and positive way
If dysfunctional conflict persists, refer problem to parties’ direct
supervisors
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Skills & Best Practices: How to Deal with
Personality Conflicts (Cont.)
11-8
Tips for Managers Whose Employees are Having a
Personality Conflict
All employees need to be familiar with and follow company policies
for diversity, antidiscrimination, and sexual harassment
Investigate and document conflict
If appropriate, take corrective action
If necessary, attempt informal dispute resolution
Refer difficult conflicts to human resource specialists or hired
counselors for formal resolution attempts and other interventions
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In-Group Thinking: The Seeds
Of Intergroup Conflict
11-9
 Members of in-groups view themselves as a
collection of unique individuals.
 In-group members see themselves positively and
as morally correct, while they view members of
other groups negatively and as immoral.
 In-groups view outsiders as a threat.
 In-group members exaggerate the differences
between their group and other groups. This
typically involves a distorted sense of reality.
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Minimizing Intergroup Conflict: An
Updated Contact Model
11-10 Figure 11-1
Level of perceived
Inter-group conflict tends
to increase when:
• Conflict within the
group is high
• There are negative
interactions between
groups (or between
members of those
groups)
• Influential third-party
gossip about other group
is negative
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Recommended actions:
• Work to eliminate specific negative
interactions between groups (and
members).
• Conduct team building to reduce
intragroup conflict and prepare
employees for cross-functional teamwork.
• Encourage personal friendships and
good working relationships across
groups and departments.
• Foster positive attitudes toward
members of other groups (empathy,
compassion, sympathy).
• Avoid or neutralize negative gossip
across groups or departments.
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Skills & Best Practices: How to Build
Cross-Cultural Relationships
11-11
Behavior
 Be a good listener
 Be sensitive to the needs of others
 Be cooperative, rather than overly competitive
 Advocate inclusive (participative) leadership
 Compromise rather than dominate
 Build rapport through conversations
 Be compassionate and understanding
 Avoid conflict by emphasizing harmony
 Nurture others (develop and mentor)
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Rank
1
2
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Tie
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Programming Functional Conflict
11-12
 Programmed Conflict: encourages different
opinions without protecting management’s
personal feelings.
 Devil’s advocacy: assigning someone the
role of critic.
 Dialectic method: fostering a debate of
opposing viewpoints to better understand an
issue.
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Techniques for Stimulating Functional
Conflict: Devil’s Advocacy
11-13 Figure 11-2
A Devil’s Advocacy Decision Program
1. A Proposed Course of Action is generated
2. A devil’s advocate is assigned to criticize the proposal
3. The critique is presented to key decision makers
4. Any additional information relevant to the issues is gathered
5. The decision to adopt, modify, or discontinue the proposed
course of action is taken
6. The decision is monitored
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Techniques for Stimulating Functional
Conflict: the Dialectic Method
11-14 Figure 11-2
The Dialectic Decision Method
1. A Proposed Course of Action is generated
2. Assumptions underlying the proposal are identified
3. A conflicting counterproposal is generated based on
different assumptions
4. Advocates of each position present and debate the merits of
their proposals before key decision makers
5. The decision to adopt either position or some other position
is taken
6. The decision is monitored
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Five Conflict Handling Styles
Concern for Others
11-15 Figure 11-3
High
Integrating
Obliging
Compromising
Low
Dominating
Avoiding
High
Low
Concern for Self
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Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)
Techniques
11-16
 Alternative Dispute Resolution: avoiding
costly lawsuits by resolving conflicts
informally or through mediation or arbitration.
 Techniques:






Facilitation
Conciliation
Peer review
Ombudsman
Mediation
Arbitration
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Negotiation
11-17
 Negotiation: give-and-take process between
conflicting independent parties.
 Two types:


Distributive
Integrative
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Added-Value Negotiation
11-18
 Added-Value Negotiation: cooperatively
developing multiple-deal packages while
building a long-term relationship
 Five Steps:





Clarify interests
Identify options
Design alternative deal packages
Select a deal
Perfect the deal
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Skills & Best Practices: Seven Steps
To Negotiating Your Salary
11-19
1. Know the going rate
2. Don’t fudge your past compensation
3. Present cold, hard proof of your value
4. Let the other party name a figure first
5. Don’t nickel-and-dime
6. Avoid extravagant extras
7. Seek incentives and practical perks
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Communicating in the Internet
Age
Learning Objectives
 Describe the perpetual process model of





communication.
Demonstrate your familiarity with four antecedents
of communication distortion between managers and
employees.
Contrast the communication styles of assertiveness,
aggressiveness, and nonassertiveness.
Discuss the primary sources of nonverbal
communication and 10 keys to effective listening.
Explain the information technology of
Internet/Intranet/Extranet, E-mail,
videoconferencing, and collaborative computing,
and explain the related use of telecommuting.
Describe the process, personal, physical, and
semantic barriers to effective communication.
Chapter Twelve
A Perceptual Model of Communication
12-1 Figure 12-1
Sender
Encodes
ideas or
thoughts
Creates
message
Transmitted
on medium
Receiver
Decodes
message
Creates
meaning
Creates
message
Encodes
response/
feedback
Noise
Creates
meaning
Decodes
message
Transmitted
on medium
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Sources of Distortion
In Upward Communication
12-2 Figure 12-2
Pattern of Distortion in Upward
Communication
Situational Antecedents
1.
Supervisor’s upward
influence
2. Supervisor’s power
3. Subordinate’s
aspiration for upward
mobility
4. Subordinate’s trust in
the supervisor
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Low
Low
Low
Low
High
High
High
High
Increased distortion because
employees send more
favorable information and
withhold useful information.
Increased distortion because
employees screen out
information detrimental to
their welfare.
Less accuracy because
employees tend to pass along
information that helps their
cause.
Considerable distortion
because employees do not
pass up all information they
receive.
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Reducing Distortion
12-3
Managers can reduce distortion by:
 Managers can deemphasize power differences
between themselves and their direct reports.
 They can enhance trust through a meaningful
performance review process that rewards actual
performance.
 Managers can encourage staff feedback by
conducting smaller, more informal meetings.
 They can establish performance goals that
encourage employees to focus on problems rather
than personalities.
 Distortion can be limited by encouraging dialogue
between those with appropriate viewpoints.
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Communication Competence Affects
Upward Mobility
12-4 Figure 12-3
Communication
Competence
Communication
Abilities/Traits
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Situational Factors
Upward
Mobility
Individuals
Involved
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Assertiveness, Aggressiveness, and
Nonassertiveness
12-5
 Assertive style: expressive and self-
enhancing, but does not take advantage of
others.
 Aggressive style: expressive and self-
enhancing, but takes advantage of others.
 Nonassertive style: timid and self-denying
behavior.
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Communication Styles
12-6 Table 12-1
Communication
Style
Nonverbal Behavior
Description
Assertive Pushing hard
without attacking;
permits others to
influence outcome;
expressive and selfenhancing without
intruding on others.
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Pattern
Good eye contact;
Comfortable but firm
posture; Strong,
steady and audible
voice; Facial
expressions
matched to
message;
Appropriately
serious tone;
Selective
interruptions to
ensure
understanding.
Verbal Behavior
Pattern
Direct and
unambiguous
language; No
attributions or
evaluations of
others’ behavior;
Use of “I”
statements and
cooperative “we”
statements.
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Communication Styles (Cont.)
12-7 Table 12-1
Communication
Style
Nonverbal Behavior
Description
Aggressive Taking advantage
of others;
Expressive and
self-enhancing at
others’ expense.
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Pattern
Glaring eye contact;
Moving or leaning
too close;
Threatening gestures
(pointing finger;
clenched fist); Loud
Voice; Frequent
interruptions.
Verbal Behavior
Pattern
Swear words and
abusive
language;
Attributions and
evaluations of
others’ behavior;
Sexist or racists
terms; Explicit
threats or putdowns.
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Communication Styles (Cont.)
12-8 Table 12-1
Communication
Style
Nonassertive
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Nonverbal Behavior
Description
Encouraging
others to take
advantage of us;
Inhibited; Selfdenying.
Pattern
Little eye contact;
Downward glances;
Slumped postures;
Constantly shifting
weight; Wringing
hands; Weak or
whiny voice.
Verbal Behavior
Pattern
Qualifiers
(“maybe,” “kind
of” ); Fillers
(“uh,” “you
know,” “well”);
Negaters (“it’s
really not that
important,” “I’m
not sure”).
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Nonverbal Communication
12-9
 Nonverbal Communication: messages sent
outside of the written and spoken word.
 Sources:




Body movement and gestures
Touch
Facial expression
Eye contact
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Skills & Best Practices: Advice to Improve
Nonverbal Communication Skills
12-10
 Positive nonverbal actions include the
following:





Maintain eye contact
Nod your head to convey that you are listening
or that you agree
Smile and show interest
Lean forward to show the speaker you are
interested
Use a tone of voice that matches your
message
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Skills & Best Practices: Advice to Improve
Nonverbal Communication Skills (Cont.)
12-11
 Negative nonverbal actions include the
following:





Avoiding eye contact and looking away from
the speaker
Closing your eyes or tensing your facial
muscles
Excessive yawning
Using body language that conveys
indecisiveness or lack of confidence
Speaking too fast or too slow
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Active Listening
12-12
 Listening: actively
decoding and
interpreting verbal
messages.

Listening Styles:
 Appreciative
 Empathetic
 Comprehensive
 Discerning
 Evaluative
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The Keys to Effective Listening
12-13 Table 12-1
Key to Effective Listening
Capitalize on thought speed
Listen for ideas
Find an area of interest
Judge content not delivery
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The Bad Listener
The Good Listener
Tends to daydream
Stays with the
speaker, mentally
summarizes the
speaker, weighs
evidence, and listens
between the lines
Listens for facts
Listens for central or
overall ideas
Tunes out dry
speakers or
subjects
Listens for any useful
information
Tunes out dry
monotone speakers
Assesses content by
listening to entire
message before
making judgments
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The Keys to Effective Listening (Cont.)
12-14 Table 12-1
Key to Effective Listening
The Bad Listener
The Good Listener
Hold your fire
Gets too emotional
or worked up by
something said by
the speaker and
enters into an
argument
Withholds judgment
until comprehension is
complete
Work at listening
Does not expend
energy on listening
Gives the speaker full
attention
Resist distractions
Is easily distracted
Fights distractions
and concentrates on
the speaker
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The Keys to Effective Listening (Cont.)
12-15 Table 12-1
Key to Effective Listening
The Bad Listener
The Good Listener
Hear what is said
Shuts our or denies
unfavorable
information
Listens to both
favorable and
unfavorable
information
Challenge yourself
Resists listening to
presentations of
difficult subject
manner
Use handouts, overheads, or
other visual aids
Does not take notes Takes notes as
or pay attention to required and uses
visual aids
visual aids to enhance
understanding of the
presentation
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Treats complex
presentations as
exercises for the mind
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Key Terms Associated with Information
Technology
12-16
 Internet: a global network of computer networks.
 Intranet: an organization’s private internet.
 Extranet: connects internal employees with selected
customers, suppliers, and strategic partners.
 Electronic Mail: uses the Internet/Intranet to send
computer-generated text and documents.
 Collaborative computing: using computer software
and hardware to help people work better together.
 Telecommuting: doing work that is generally
performed in the office away from the office using
different information technologies.
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Skills & Best Practices: Managing
Your Email
12-17
 Scan first, read second
 Learn to delete without reading
 Group messages by topic
 Once steps 1-3 are complete, prioritize
your inbox and respond in order of a
message’s importance
 Stop the madness by asking people to
stop sending you unimportant messages
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Skills & Best Practices: Managing
Your Email (Cont.)
12-18
 Rather than continuing to engage in ping-
pong emailing, determine if a phone call
can get to the heart of the matter
 Get off CC lists
 Only respond to a message when it is
absolutely required
 Keep messages brief and clear
 Avoid the reply to all feature
 If the message concerns a volatile or
critical matter, e-mail is probably the
wrong medium to use
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Barriers to Effective Communication
12-19
Process Barriers:
 Sender barrier
 Encoding barrier
 Message barrier
 Medium barrier
 Decoding barrier
 Receiver barrier
 Feedback barrier
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Barriers to Effective
Communication (Cont.)
12-20
Personal Barriers:
 Ability to effectively
communicate
 Way people process and
interpret information
 Level of interpersonal trust
between people
 Stereotypes and
prejudices
 Poor listening skills
 Tendency to evaluate or
judge the sender’s
message
 Inability to listen with
understanding
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Barriers to Effective
Communication (Cont.)
12-21
 Physical Barriers
 Semantic Barriers
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Influence, Power, and Politics
An Organizational Survival Kit
Learning Objectives
 Name five “soft” and four “hard” influence tactics





and summarize the practical lessons from influence
research.
Identify and briefly describe French and Raven’s
five bases of power.
Define the term empowerment and explain how to
make it succeed.
Define organizational politics and explain what
triggers it, and specify the three levels of political
action in organizations.
Distinguish between favorable and unfavorable
impression management tactics.
Explain how to manage organizational politics.
Chapter Thirteen
Nine Generic Influence Tactics
13-1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Rational persuasion
Inspirational appeals
Consultation
Ingratiation
Personal appeals
Exchange
Coalition tactics
Pressure
Legitimating tactics
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Skills & Best Practices: How to Turn Your
Coworkers into Strategic Allies
13-2
1. Mutual respect
2. Openness
3. Trust
4. Mutual benefit
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Five Bases of Power
13-3
 Reward power: obtaining




compliance with promised or
actual rewards.
Coercive power: obtaining
compliance through
threatened or actual
punishment.
Legitimating power:
obtaining compliance
through formal authority.
Expert power: obtaining
compliance through one’s
knowledge or information.
Referent power: obtaining
compliance through
charisma or personal
attraction.
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Employee Empowerment
13-4
 Empowerment: sharing varying degrees of
power with lower-level employees to better
serve the customer.
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Randolph’s Empowerment Model
13-5 Figure 13-1
The Empowerment Plan
Share Information
Create Autonomy
Through Structure
Let Teams Become
The Hierarchy
Remember: Empowerment is not magic;
it consists of a few simple steps and
a lot of persistence.
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Organizational Politics
13-6
 Organizational Politics: intentional enhancement of
self-interest.
 Political tactics:








Attacking or blaming others
Using information as a political tool
Creating a favorable image
Developing a base of support
Praising others
Forming power coalitions with strong allies
Associating with influential people
Creating obligations
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Level of Political Action in Organizations
13-7 Figure 13-2
Distinguishing Characteristics
Network
Level
Coalition
Level
Cooperative
pursuit of general
self-interests
Cooperative
pursuit of group
interests in specific
issues
Individual
Level
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Individual pursuit
of general selfinterests
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Impression Management
13-8
 Impression
Management: getting
others to see us in a
certain manner.
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Bad Impressions
13-9
 Four motives for intentionally looking bad
at work:




Avoidance
Obtain concrete rewards
Exit
Power
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Bad Impressions (Cont.)
13-10
 Five unfavorable upward impression
management tactics:





Decreasing performance
Not working to potential
Withdrawing
Displaying a bad attitude
Broadcasting limitations
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Skills & Best Practices: How to Keep
Organizational Politics within Reasonable Bounds
13-11
Screen out overly political individuals at hiring time.
Create an open-book management system.
Make sure every employee knows how the business works and has a
personal line of sight to key results with corresponding measurable
objectives for individual accountability.
Have nonfinancial people interpret periodic financial and accounting
statements for all employees.
Establish formal conflict resolution and grievance processes.
As an ethics filter, do only what you feel comfortable doing on
national television.
Publicly recognize and reward people who get real results without
political games.
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Leadership
Learning Objectives
 Review trait theory research, and discuss the idea of





one best style of leadership using the Ohio State
studies and the Leadership Grid as points of reference.
Explain, according to Fiedler’s contingency model, how
leadership style interacts with situational control.
Discuss House’s revised path-goal theory and Hersey
and Blanchard’s situational leadership theory.
Describe the difference between transactional and
transformational leadership and discuss how
transformational leadership transforms followers and
work groups.
Explain the leader-member exchange (LMX) model of
leadership and the concept of shared leadership.
Review the principles of servant leadership and discuss
Level 5 leadership
Chapter Fourteen
Trait Theory
14-1
 Leader trait: personal characteristics that
differentiate leaders from followers.
 Leadership prototype: mental
representations of the traits and behaviors
possessed by leaders.
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Gender and Leadership
14-2
 Men and women were seen as




displaying more task and social
leadership, respectively
Women used a more democratic
or participative style than men and
men used a more autocratic and
directive style than women
Men and women were equally
assertive
Women executives, when rated by
their peers, managers, and direct
reports, scored higher than their
male counterparts on a variety of
effectiveness criteria
Men displayed more laissez-faire
leadership
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Behavioral Styles Theory
14-3
 The Ohio State Studies: identified two
critical dimensions of leader behavior.


Consideration: creating mutual respect and
trust with followers.
Initiating structure: organizing and defining
what group members should be doing.
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Behavioral Styles Theory (Cont.)
14-4
 University of Michigan Studies
 identified two leadership styles that were similar to
the Ohio State studies--one style was employee
centered and the other was job centered
 The Leadership Grid ©
 represents five leadership styles found by crossing
concern for production and concern for people
 Impoverished management
 Country club management
 Authority-compliance
 Middle-of-the-road management
 Team management
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Skills & Best Practices: Peter Drucker’s
Tips for Improving Leadership Effectiveness
14-5
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Determine what needs to be done.
Determine the right thing to do for the welfare of the
entire enterprise or organization.
Develop action plans that specify desired results,
probably restraints, future revisions, check-in points,
and implications for how one should spend his or
her time.
Take responsibility for decisions.
Take responsibility for communicating action plans
and give people the information they need to get the
job done.
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Skills & Best Practices: Peter Drucker’s
Tips for Improving Leadership Effectiveness (Cont.)
14-6
Focus on opportunities rather than problems. Do
not sweep problems under the rug, and treat
changes as an opportunity rather than a threat.
7. Run productive meetings. Different types of
meetings require different forms of preparation and
different results. Prepare accordingly.
8. Think and say “we” rather than “I”. Consider the
needs and opportunities of the organization before
thinking of your own opportunities and needs.
9. Listen first, speak last.
6.
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Situational Theories
14-7
 Situational theories: propose that leader
styles should match the situation at hand.
 Fiedler’s Contingency Model

The performance of a leader depends on two
interrelated factors:


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The degree to which the situation gives the
leader control and influence
The leader’s basic motivation
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Representation of Fiedler’s Contingency
Model
14-8 Figure 14-1
Situational
Control
High Control
Situations
Moderate
Control Situations
Low Control
Situations
Leader-member Good
relations
Good
Good
Good
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor
Task Structure
High
High
High
Low
High
High
Low
Low
Position Power
Strong Weak Strong
Weak
Strong Strong Strong
I
IV
V
Situation
Optimal
Leadership
Style
II
III
Task Motivated
Leadership
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VI
Relationship
Motivated
Leadership
VII
Weak
VIII
Task Motivated
Leadership
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A General Representation of
House’s Revised Path-Goal Theory
14-9 Figure 14-2
Employee Characteristics
Leader Behavior
Leadership
Effectiveness
Environmental Factors
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Categories of Leader Behavior within
the Revised Path-Goal Theory
14-10 Table 14-1
 Path-goal clarifying behaviors
 Achievement-oriented behaviors
 Work facilitation behaviors
 Supportive behaviors
 Interaction facilitation behaviors
 Group-oriented decision-making behaviors
 Representation and networking behaviors
 Value-based behaviors
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Situational
Leadership Model
14-11 Figure 14-3
Leader Behavior
Relationship Behavior
(supportive behavior)
High
Low
Low
High
R4
Participating
S3
Share ideas and
facilitate in
decision making
Selling
S2
Explain decisions and
provide opportunity for
clarification
Delegating
S4
Turn over
responsibility for
decisions and
implementation
Telling
S1
Provide specific
instructions and closely
supervise performance
Task Behavior
Follower Readiness
Moderate
R3
R2
Follower-Directed
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High
Low
R1
Leader-Directed
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Transactional Leadership
14-12
 Transactional leadership: focuses on the
clarifying employees’ roles and providing
rewards contingent on performance.
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Transformational Leadership
14-13
 Transformational leaders: transforms
employees to pursue organizational goals
over self-interests.
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A Transformational Model of
Leadership
14-14 Figure 14-4
Individual and
Organizational
Characteristics
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Leader
behavior
Effects on
followers and
work groups
Outcomes
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Skills & Best Practices: Johnson
& Johnson’s Seven Guiding Principles
14-15
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Leadership development is a key business strategy
Leadership excellence is a definable set of
standards
People are responsible for their own development
Johnson & Johnson executives are accountable for
developing leaders
Leaders are developed primarily on the job
People are an asset of the corporation
Human resources is vital to the success of
leadership development
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The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)
Model of Leadership
14-16
 This model is based on the idea that one of two
distinct types of leader-member exchange
relationships evolve, and these exchanges are
related to important work outcomes.


in-group exchange: a partnership characterized by
mutual trust, respect and liking
out-group exchange: a partnership characterized by
a lack of mutual trust, respect and liking
 Research supports this model
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Tips for Improving the Quality of LMX
14-17
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Stay focused on your department’s goals and
remain positive about your ability to accomplish
your goals.
Do not fall prey to feeling powerless and empower
yourself to get things done.
Exercise the power you have by focusing on
circumstances you can control and avoid dwelling
on circumstances you cannot control.
Work on improving your relationship with your
manager.
Use an authentic, respectful, and assertive
approach to resolve differences with your manager.
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Shared Leadership
14-18
 Shared leadership: simultaneous, ongoing,
mutual influence process in which people
share responsibility for leading.
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Key Questions to Consider When
Developing Shared Leadership
14-19 Table 14-3
What task characteristics call for shared leadership?
What is the role of the leader in developing shared
leadership?
How can organizational systems facilitate the development
of shared leadership?
What vertical and shared leadership behaviors are important
to team outcomes?
What are the ongoing responsibilities of the vertical leader?
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Servant Leadership
14-20
 Servant leadership: focuses on increasing
services to others rather than one’s self.
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Characteristics of Servant Leadership
14-21 Table 14-2
Servant-Leadership
Characteristics
Description
Listening
Servant leaders focus on listening to identify and
clarify the needs and desires of a group
Empathy
Servant leaders try to empathize with others’
feelings and emotions
Healing
Servant leaders strive to make themselves and
others whole in the face of failure and suffering
Awareness
Servant leaders are very self-aware of their
strengths and limitations
Persuasion
Servant leaders rely more on persuasion than
positional authority when making decisions and
trying to influence others
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Characteristics of Servant
Leadership (Cont.)
14-22 Table 14-2
Servant-Leadership
Characteristics
Description
Conceptualization
Servant leaders take the time and effort to develop
broader based conceptual thinking
Foresight
Servant leaders have the ability to foresee future
outcomes associated with a current course of
action or situation
Stewardship
Servant leaders assume that they are stewards of
the people and resources they manage
Commitment to the
growth of people
Servant leaders are committed to people beyond
their immediate work role
Building community
Servant leaders strive to create a sense of
community both within and outside the work
organization
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The Level 5 Hierarchy
14-23 Figure 14-5
Level 5: Executive
Level 4: Effective Leader
Level 3: Competent Manager
Level 2: Contributing Team Member
Level 1: Highly Capable Individual
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Designing Effective
Organizations
Learning Objectives
 Describe the four characteristics common to all





organizations.
Explain the difference between closed and open
systems, and contrast the military/mechanical,
biological, and cognitive systems metaphors for
organizations.
Describe the four generic organizational
effectiveness criteria.
Explain what the contingency approach to
organizational design involves.
Discuss Burns and Stalker’s findings regarding
mechanistic and organic organizations.
Describe new-style and old-style organizations, and
list the keys to managing geographically-dispersed
employees in virtual organizations.
Chapter Fifteen
What is an Organization?
15-1
 Organization: system of consciously
coordinated activities of two or more people.
 Unity of command principle: each
employee should report to a single manager.
 Organization chart: boxes-and-lines
illustration showing chain of formal authority
and division of labor.
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Sample Organization Chart for a Hospital
15-2 Figure 15-1
Board of Directors
Strategic
Planning
Advisor
Executive
Administrative
Director
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Chief Executive
Officer
Legal
Counsel
President
CostContainment
Staff
Executive
Medical
Director
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Sample Organization Chart for a
Hospital (Cont.)
15-3 Figure 15-1
Executive
Administrative
Staff
Dir.
Of
Human
Resources
Dir.
Of
Patient
& Public
Relations
Dir.
Of
Admissions
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Executive
Medical
Director
Dir.
Of
Nutrition
& Food
Services
Dir.
Of
Accounting
Dir.
X-Ray &
Lab
Services
Dir.
Of
OutPatient
Services
Dir.
Of
Surgery
Chief
Physician
Dir.
Of
Pharmacy
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Span of Control
15-4
 Span of control: the number of people
reporting directly to a given manager.
 Staff personnel: provide research, advice,
and recommendations to line managers.
 Line Managers: have authority to make
organizational decisions.
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Needed: Open-System Thinking
15-5
Closed System: “A self-sufficient entity, closed to the
surrounding environment.” (For example, a battery-powered clock.)
Open system: “Depends on constant interaction with
the surrounding environment for survival.” (For example, the
human body.)
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Organizations as Military/Mechanical
Bureaucracies
15-6
 Bureaucracy: Max Weber’s idea of the most
rationally efficient form of organization.
 Weber’s Bureaucracy: four factors should
make bureaucracies the epitome of efficiency




Division of labor
A hierarchy of authority
A framework of rules
Administrative personality
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The Organization as an Open System:
The Biological Metaphor
15-7 Figure 15-2
Goals and Values
Subsystem
Technical
Subsystems
Managerial
Subsystem
Inputs
Psychological
Subsystem
Outputs
Structural
Subsystem
Feedback
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Generic Effectiveness Criteria
15-8
 “No single approach to the evaluation of
effectiveness is appropriate to all
circumstances or for all organization types.”




Goal accomplishment
Resource acquisition
Internal processes
Strategic constituencies satisfaction

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Strategic constituency: any group of people
with a stake in the organization’s operation or
success.
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Four Dimensions of Organizational
Effectiveness
15-9 Figure 15-3
Goal
Accomplishment
Resource
Acquisition
Internal
Processes
Strategic
Constituencies
Satisfaction
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The Contingency Approach to Designing
Organizations
15-10
 Contingency approach to organization
design: creating an effective organizationenvironment fit.
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Mechanistic versus Organic
Organizations
15-11
 Mechanistic organizations: “Rigid
bureaucracies with strict rules, narrowly defined
tasks, and top-down communication.” (Tend
toward centralized decision-making.)
Organic organizations: “Flexible networks of
multitalented individuals who perform a variety of tasks.”
(Tend toward decentralized decision making.)
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New-Style versus Old-Style
Organizations
15-12 Table 15-1
New
Old
Dynamics learning
Stable
Information rich
Information is scarce
Global
Local
Small and large
Large
Product/customer oriented
Functional
Skills oriented
Job oriented
Team oriented
Individual oriented
Involvement oriented
Command/control oriented
Lateral/networked
Hierarchical
Customer oriented
Job requirements oriented
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Skills & Best Practices: How to Manage
Globally-Dispersed Employees
15-13
 The three keys are: sharing knowledge, building
trust, and maintaining connectedness
 Other steps include:






Hire carefully
Communicate regularly
Practice “management by walking around”
Conduct regular audits
Use technology as a tool, not a weapon
Achieve a workable balance between online and
live training
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Managing Change and
Organizational Learning
Learning Objectives
 Discuss the external and internal forces that can





create the need for organizational change.
Describe Lewin’s change model and the systems
model of change.
Explain Kotter’s eight steps for leading
organizational change.
Review the 10 reasons employees resist change.
Identify alternative strategies for overcoming
resistance to change.
Discuss the process organizations use to build their
learning capabilities.
Chapter Sixteen
External Forces of Change
16-1
 External forces for change: originate outside the
organization.
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External Forces of Change (Cont.)
16-2
 Demographic characteristics:


The workforce is more diverse
there is a business imperative to effectively manage diversity
 Technological advancements:

organizations are increasingly using technology as a means
to improve productivity and market competitiveness
 Market changes:


the emergence of a global economy is forcing companies to
be more competitive and to do business differently
organizations are forging new partnerships and alliances
aimed at creating new products and services
 Social and political pressures:

society and its legislative bodies can put pressure on
organizations to change the way they do business--the
tobacco industry is a good example
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Internal Forces of Change
16-3
 Internal forces for change: originate outside the
organization.
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Lewin’s Change Model
 Unfreezing




16-4
Creates the motivation to change
Encourages the replacement of old behaviors and attitudes with
those desired by management
Entails devising ways to reduce barriers to change
Creates psychological safety
 Changing



Provides new information, new behavioral models, or new ways of
looking at things
Helps employees learn new concepts or points of view
Role models, mentors, experts, benchmarking results, and
training are useful mechanisms to facilitate change
 Refreezing



Helps employees integrate the changed behavior or attitude into their
normal way of doing things
Positive reinforcement is used to reinforce the desired change
Coaching and modeling help reinforce the stability of change
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A Systems Model of Change
16-5 Figure 16-1
Target Elements of Change
Organizing
Arrangements
Internal
* Strengths
* Weaknesses
External
* Opportunities
* Threats
Strategy
Inputs
Goals
People
Outputs
Social
Factors
* Organizational
Level
* Department/
group level
* Individual
level
Methods
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Steps to Leading Organizational Change
16-6 Table 16-1
Step
Description
Establish a sense of urgency
Unfreeze the organization by
creating a compelling reason for
why change is needed.
Create the guiding coalition
Create a cross-functional crosslevel group of people with enough
power to lead the change.
Develop a vision and strategy
Create a vision and strategic plan to
guide the change process.
Communicate the change vision
Create and implement a
communication strategy that
consistently communicates the new
vision and strategic plan.
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Steps to Leading Organizational
Change (Cont.)
16-7 Table 16-1
Step
Description
Empower broad based action
Eliminate barriers to change and
use target elements of change to
transform the organization.
Encourage risk taking and creative
problem solving.
Generate short-term wins
Plan for and create short-term
“wins” or improvements.
Recognize and reward people who
contribute to the wins.
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Steps to Leading Organizational
Change (Cont.)
16-8 Table 16-1
Step
Description
Consolidate gains and produce more The guiding coalition uses credibility
change
from short-term wins to create more
change. Additional people are
brought into the change process as
change cascades throughout the
organization. Attempts are made to
reinvigorate the change process.
Anchor new approaches in the
culture
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Reinforce the changes by
highlighting connections between
new behaviors and processes and
organizational success. Develop
methods to ensure leadership
development and succession.
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Characteristics of Organization
Development
16-9
 Organization Development: a set of techniques or
tools that are used to implement organizational
change.




OD Involves Profound Change
OD is Value Loaded
OD is a Diagnosis/Prescription Cycle
OD is Process-Oriented
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Some OD Interventions for
Implementing Change
16-10 Table 16-2
 Survey feedback
 Process consultation
 Team building
 Intergroup development
 Technostructural activities
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Why People Resist Change in the
Workplace
16-11
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
An individual’s
predisposition
toward change
Surprise and fear of
the unknown
Climate of mistrust
Fear of failure
Loss of status and/or
job security
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Why People Resist Change in the
Workplace (Cont.)
16-12
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Peer pressure
Disruption of cultural
traditions and/or
group relationships
Personality conflicts
Lack of tact and/or
poor timing
Nonreinforcing
reward systems
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Six Strategies for Overcoming
Resistance to Change
16-13 Table 16-3
Approach
Education
Participation &
Involvement
Commonly
used in
situations
Where there is a lack of
information or inaccurate
information and analysis
Where the initiators do not
have all the information they
need and where others have
considerable power to resist
Advantages
Once persuaded people will
often help with the
implementation of change
People who participate will
be committed to
implementing change, and
any relevant information they
have will be integrated into
the change plan
Drawbacks
Can be very time
consuming if lots of people
are involved
Can be very time consuming
if participators design an
inappropriate change
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Six Strategies for Overcoming
Resistance to Change (Cont.)
16-14 Table 16-3
Approach
Facilitation & Support
Negotiation & Agreement
Commonly
used in
situations
Where people are resisting
because of adjustment
problems
No other approach works as
well with adjustment
problems
Advantages
No other approach works as Sometimes it is a relatively
well with adjustment
easy way to avoid major
problems
resistance
Drawbacks
Can be time consuming,
expensive, and still fail
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Can be too expensive in
many cases if alerts others to
negotiate for compliance
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Six Strategies for Overcoming
Resistance to Change (Cont.)
16-15 Table 16-3
Approach
Manipulation &
Cooperation
Explicit & Implicit
Coercion
Commonly
used in
situations
Where other tactics will not
work or are too expensive
Where speed is essential and
where the change initiators
possess considerable power
Advantages
It can be a relatively quick
and inexpensive solution to
resistance problems
It is speedy and can
overcome any kind of
resistance
Drawbacks
Can lead to future problems
if people feel manipulated
Can be risky if it leaves
people mad at the initiators
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Building an Organization’s Learning
Capability
16-16 Figure 16-2
Internal
structure and
processes
Facilitating
factors
Customer
satisfaction
Sales
growth
Organizational
performance
Profitability
An organization’s
learning capability
Learning
mode
Culture and
experience
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Factors that Facilitate Organizational
Learning
16-17 Table 16-4
Scanning imperative
2. Performance gap
3. Concern for measurement
4. Experimental mindset
5. Climate of openness
6. Continuous education
7. Operational variety
8. Multiple advocates
9. Involved leadership
10. Systems perspective
1.
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Six Dominant Modes of Learning
16-18
1. Analytical learning
2. Synthetic learning
3. Experimental
learning
4. Interactive learning
5. Structural learning
6. Institutional learning
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Skills & Best Practices: Characteristics
of Teacher-Learners
16-19
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Become actively involved in
teaching and learning.
Demonstrate that you care
about your coworkers’ wellbeing.
Develop relationships with as
many people from different
backgrounds, experience, and
organizational positions as
possible.
Reflect on what you have
learned from a given situation.
Listen to others and try to learn
something from social
interactions with others.
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Working to Generate Ideas with Impact
16-20
 Implement continuous improvement programs
 Increase employee competence through training,
or buy talent from outside the organization
 Experiment with new ideas, processes, and
structural arrangements
 Go outside the organization to identify worldclass ideas and processes
 Instill systems thinking throughout the
organization
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Working to Generalize
Ideas with Impact
16-21
 Measuring and rewarding learning
 Increasing open and honest dialog among organizational










members
Reducing conflict
Increasing horizontal and vertical communications
Promoting teamwork
Rewarding risk taking and innovation
Reducing the fear of failure
Increasing the sharing of successes, failures, and best
practices across organizational members
Reducing stressors and frustration
Reducing internal competition
Increasing cooperation and collaboration
Creating a psychologically safe and comforting
environment
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