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American Literature
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The Basic Structure
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Introduction/Exposition
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Rising Action/Exposition
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The author gives us more in-depth information on the introductory elements. He or she
may also introduce additional conflicts to engage the reader.
The Crisis/The Climax
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The author introduces basic elements of the story—setting, characters, conflict—so that
the reader can understand the following elements
The most critical or decisive point in the story—everything following is based on this
element.
The Resolution/The Denouement
The ending of the story—it does not have to be an ending in which everything is
perfectly tied together.
o Some resolutions have Indeterminate Endings or endings without the primary conflict
being resolved.
o Deus Ex Machina refers to resolutions in which chance or coincidence determines the
outcome, often too heavily.
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Sequence
Authors love to tweak the sequence of stories so to capture
readers. Below are some of the ways in which they innovate.
In Medias Res (in the midst of things)
o Some stories begin with a key event and work backward. This is
primarily to create suspense, interest, confusion, or wonder.
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Flashback
o When the author moves to a time prior to the primary events of the
story so as to provide needed information, develop character, distract,
or create links.
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Framed Story
o When the story is set in the middle of another.
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Foreshadowing
o When the author provides clues as to the outcome of conflicts or events
in the story.
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Conflict
o The struggle between opposing forces is what causes the reader to
keep his or her interest in the story. Typically this conflict is between
the protagonist and an antagonist. There are several types of
conflict, all of which are either internal or external: man v. man, man
v. himself, man v. society, man v. machine, man v. god, etc
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A fictional representation of a person, place, or thing. A
character does not have to be human to be a character
(Charlotte’s Web), but the character has to be
psychologically realistic.
Characters are developed through their actions, thoughts,
reactions, physical appearance, speech, expression, and
names. Every aspect of a character is vital to understanding
him or her.
In order to understand the character, we must try to
understand what drives him or her, which is called
character motivation.
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Types of Characters (Characters may fit more than one)
Protagonist
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Antagonist
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A character who emphasizes the protagonist’s qualities by representing the opposite
Dynamic
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An undeveloped or stock character. This person just helps to further the action. He or she may be
so stereotypical that we already know what will happen or how he or she will react.
Foil
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A well-developed character. The reader knows the positives and negatives of his or her
personality.
Flat
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The person, being, or force against the protagonist
Round
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The main character
The character changes throughout the course of the story, sometimes having an epiphany (a
major life-changing realization).
Static
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The character stays the same throughout the story.
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Characterization
The author’s quandary is how to show these elements of
character. He or she accomplishes this feat in the following
manners:
o Direct Characterization
• When an author tells us how to feel about another character via
narration. Another character may also tell us.
o Indirect Characterization
• When we judge the character based on that character’s actions or
words.
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The time, place, and atmosphere of the story.
Sometimes the setting is a character—most likely an
antagonist.
Not all stories place importance in the setting, but many do.
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Three Elements of Setting
Historical Setting
o You must understand the basics of the era in which the story was placed in
order to understand the story. A character in a medieval story would behave
differently than one in a modern one. Likewise, a character from 1950 would
have an entirely different set of cultural norms than one from today.
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Physical Setting
o The physical space in which a character lives is vital to understanding the story.
Even the time of day can be vital—most ghosts are seen at night. Look for
descriptions of the spaces in which a character acts and you may discover the
meaning.
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Geographical Setting
o The where is vital to understanding character. Just as you act and speak
differently than someone from Hawaii, characters do as well. Look at the
geographical setting in order to understand the context of the story.
Types of Narrators
 First Person Narrator
o If the narrator uses I or we to tell the story. This narrator may be a minor
character, observer, or major character. This type of point-of-view is
useful because it can create opportunities to use irony.
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Second Person Narrator
o This is directed at the reader. You or Your is the clue.
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Unreliable First Person Narrator
o This is a narrator who is completely unstable and creates a sense of
disbelief in the reader. Think of MacBeth being told by Lady MacBeth.
Unreliable narrators help us gain perspective into the purpose of the
story.
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Third Person Omniscient Narrator
o These are your all knowing narrators. They get into the minds and
personas of several characters and help give insight to the norms of the
story.
Types of Narrators Continued
 Third Person Limited Omniscient Narrator
o This narrator can only get into the mind of one character, but
remains outside of the story. This limits the reader’s insight as it
only gives us one perspective, but frees us from judging the events
from a skewed point of view.
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Third Person Objective Narrator
o Objective narrators remain outside of the minds of characters and
the events of the story. It is as if the narrator is a journalist and
must remain emotionless and opinion-less to the events.
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Dramatic Irony
o When the reader knows the outcome (or truth of some sort) prior to
some of the characters.
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Situational Irony
o An event or situation is drastically different from what the reader
would expect.
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Verbal Irony
o When the narrator (or speaker) says one thing, but means another.
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An object, person, action, or place that has literal meaning
in the story, but also represents something larger. A symbol
may have more than one meaning or may connote multiple
interpretations. All symbols fall into either of the following
categories:
o Universal or Archetypal: A set of symbols that are a part of the
human experience and are consistent throughout cultures.
• Grim Reaper, The Earth Mother, the Wise Old Man
o Conventional Symbols: These symbols are only shared by those who
experience the same culture.
• The Vapid Heiress, Snakes as Evil
Types of Symbolism
 Name Symbolism
o Sometimes a character’s name can represent an aspect of their personality or a
larger message in the text. Think of Pony from The Outsiders. A pony is a young
horse, and though Pony the character is initiated into manhood, he wants to
always be able to look at the world with fresh eyes—“stay golden.”
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Object or Action Symbolism
o Objects and Actions can be Symbolic. In Night, Juliek’s violin was a symbol of
beauty and truth being destroyed just as Hitler destroyed the Jews. Also, the
hanging of the pipet was a symbol of innocence destroyed.
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Place Symbolism
o Often writers place their characters in symbolic landscapes. The forest, for
example, is often a symbol for mysticism and devilry. In Hemingways’s Hills Like
White Elephants, the railway represents the crossroads at which the couple
have arrived. They can choose to travel either way—just as she can choose to
abort or not.
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All literature is written for a purpose. Some fiction (most
popular fiction) is only meant to entertain the reader;
however, literature’s purpose is to reveal a truth about life.
Theme is what separates Twilight from Dracula or an Eric
Jerome Dickey novel from one of Toni Morrison’s. Theme is
the central message of the piece or generalization that can
be made based on the text. There can be more than one
theme within a text.
Theme is not the moral of the story. For example, there is
no moral to Night, but there are themes such as there is no
god in the world and human life is full of depravity and
darkness. Weisel did not write that to teach us to be kind to
each other, but to share a human experience.
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You do not have to agree with the theme of a novel. Themes can go
against every belief you hold. But, if there is evidence in the text that it
exists, it does.
Theme should be able to be expressed in a sentence. Instead of saying
that the theme is godlessness, you should say that Wiesel expresses
that religion is a myth because there can be no god in a world full of
depravity and suffering.
The theme should be a generalization. Notice that I did not refer to the
Holocaust in the above statement. I could apply that theme to several
novels because it is generalized.
Avoid terms such as all, every, always, etc. Do not make a blanket
statement.
You must be able to prove theme. Use the text and those previous
literary elements to derive the theme.
Do not use a cliché to express theme. “Love is blind” is not a theme. It’s
a cliché.
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Writers manipulate language for a specific purpose. Each word you read has been
constructed especially to convey a particular tone via diction, syntax, and structure.
Style also dictates tone—the narrator or author’s view of the subject, events, or
characters.
Diction
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o Dialect: When it is written in the manner of authentic speech.
Syntax
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Diction refers to word choice. It can either be formal (think Poe) or informal (think email).
Syntax refers to the order of the words. A single thought can be expressed in a variety of manners.
Authors choose syntax to convey tone and contribute to the formality or informality of the work.
The structure of the sentences dictates the tone.
Stream-of-consciousness
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This is when a narrator speaks whatever comes to his or her mind so that we can get a realistic
glimpse of the brain waves—sometimes neuroses—of the character, but sometimes it doesn’t
always follow a specific pattern or train of thought just as you are now totally confused as to what
this is talking about. My dog is looking confused too. I probably need to feed the beasts. I hope
you ask questions if you are confused as to what stream-of-consciousness—or any other term—is
or if you think you get it I am glad. Yay!
Poetic Language
o Repetition
• It adds emphasis to a thought process, character, or situation. Sentences,
phrases, or words can be repeated.
o Alliteration
• The repetition of sounds allows the words to stream softly or harshly and
creates a tone.
o Parallelism
• Sentences are often structured so that they follow the same pattern. Look
for series that have the same verb tenses and structures.
o Metaphors, Similes, Hyperboles, and Understatements all contribute to
tone as well.
o Allusions—those pesky references to people, places, and major events
always expand the reader’s understanding of the work.
o Imagery- the sensory experience of the work.