© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
CHAPTER
2
Cognitive and Language
Development
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
An Overview of Child Development
Development:
The pattern of
biological,
cognitive, and
socioemotional
changes that
begins at
conception and
continues through
the life span.
2.2
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Developmental Processes
Biological processes and genetic inheritance
–
–
–
–
Development of the brain
Gains in height and weight
Changes in motor skills
Puberty’s hormonal changes
Cognitive processes
– Changes in the child’s thinking
– Intelligence
– Language acquisition
2.3
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Developmental Processes
Socioemotional processes
– Changes in the child’s relationships
with other people
– Changes in personality
2.4
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Brain Growth
Synaptic connections that are used strengthen and survive. The growth and pruning of
connections between neurons in the visual, auditory, and prefrontal cortex is critical to
the functioning of learning, memory, and reasoning.
2.5
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Neural Communication
2.6
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
The four lobes of the human cerebral cortex
2.7
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Brain Lateralization
…the specialization of functions in one
hemisphere of the brain or the other.
Verbal
Processing
Nonverbal
Processing
In most individuals,
speech and grammar
are localized
in the left hemisphere.
“Analytical side”
Spatial perception,
visual recognition,
& emotion
are localized
in the right hemisphere.
2.8
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Piaget’s Theory
Schema
Assimilation
Accommodation
Organization
Equilibration
• A framework to organize and
interpret information.
• The ability to incorporate new
knowledge into existing knowledge.
• The ability to adjust schemas to the
environment.
• Grouping isolated behaviors into a
higher order.
• A shift, a resolution of conflict to
reach a balance.
2.9
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Basic Concepts in Piaget’s Theory
• Children actively
construct their own
cognitive world through:
–Organization
–Adaptation
• Assimilation
• Accommodation
Copyright (c) 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2.10
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Organization
The mind’s grouping of isolated
behaviors and thoughts into a higherorder system. It occurs both within and
across stages of development.
Copyright (c) 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Examples of Organization
• Two systems that humans use:
– Mathematical notation systems
– Language systems
• We organize ideas. For
example, sorority and fraternity
belong to the category social
groups.
• Schemas for e-mail and webbrowsing get organized into
higher order systems (e.g.
computer skills).
Copyright (c) 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2.12
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Two Processes in Adaptation
• Assimilation
– Incorporation of new information
into existing knowledge.
• Accommodation
– Adjustment to new information
involves changing old schemas.
When you came to college you
had to accommodate your
schemas for learning.
Copyright (c) 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2.13
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Piaget’s Four Stages
Cognition unfolds in a
sequence of four stages.
• Each is age-related and
distinctive.
• Each stage is
discontinuous from and
more advanced than
the previous.
2.14
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Piaget’s Four Stages
2.15
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
Coordination of sensory experiences
with motor actions
Object permanence involves the
realization that objects continue to exist
over time
2.16
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Rules for Toddlers
•
•
•
•
•
If I like it, it’s mine.
If it’s in my hand, it’s mine.
If I can take it from you, it’s mine.
If I had it a little while ago, it’s mine.
If it’s mine, it must never appear to be
yours in any way.
2.17
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Pre-operational stage
(2-7 years)
• Two substages of the preoperational period are:
–Symbolic function: 2-4
Years
– Intuitive thought: 4-7
Years
Copyright (c) 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2.18
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage
Symbolic Function Substage
Symbolic Thought: ability to represent mentally
an object that is not present (drawing, pretend play,
language).
Limitations:
– Egocentrism: The inability to distinguish between
one’s own perspective and someone else’s perspective.
– Animism: The belief that inanimate objects have
“lifelike” qualities and are capable of action.
2.19
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Can this boy report what the clown doll sees?
Copyright (c) 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2.20
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
The Three Mountain Tasks
2.21
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage
Intuitive Thought Substage
Intuitive Thought rather than logical thinking (ask
lots of questions).
Centration: Focuses on one characteristic to the
exclusion of others.
Lack of Conservation ability —doesn’t
understand that quantities remain the
same, even when the matter has
undergone a transformation.
Lack of Classification: inability to classify
objects according to only one characteristic
2.22
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
What is conservation?
• Conservation means understanding that
a quantity is the same even when it
undergoes qualitative changes.
• If you pour limeade from a beaker into a
disk, the amount of liquid is the same.
Does one look like it has more?
Copyright (c) 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2.23
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Conservation of Liquid
2.24
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
Logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning,
but only in concrete situations.
Conservation:
Classification:
Seriation:
Transitivity:
The idea that some characteristics of
an object stays the same even though
the object might change in appearance.
Coordinate several characteristics
rather than focus on a single property of
an object.
Order stimuli along some quantitative
dimension.
Combine relations to understand
certain conclusions.
“ If J is taller than M, and M is taller
than S, who is taller – J or S?”
2.25
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Hierarchical Classification
When shown a
family tree of four
generations, the
concrete operational
child can classify
the members
vertically,
horizontally,
and obliquely (up,
down, and across).
2.26
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Conservation of Length
Is one of these lines longer or are they they same?
What would the pre-operational child say?
Copyright (c) 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2.27
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Conservation of Length
The preoperational child would say the one on
the top is longer. Pre-operational children
base their concepts on perception, not logic.
Copyright (c) 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2.28
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Conservation of Length
Are all of these lines the same length? Is one longer?
What would the pre-operational child say?
Copyright (c) 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2.29
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Conservation of Length
Preoperational children are tricked by perception.
The think the one “out front” is longer.
Copyright (c) 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2.30
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Conservation of Area
Which side has more green?
Copyright (c) 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2.31
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Both have the same area of green.
Preoperational children rely on perception
and think the one on the right has more.
Copyright (c) 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2.32
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Concrete operational children can conserve. They understand
that the amount of area is the same in spite of qualitative
change
(i.e., rearranging).
Copyright (c) 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2.33
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Conservation of Number
Do these two rows have the same number of balls?
Do these two rows have the same number of balls?
Which has more?
Copyright (c) 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2.34
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Conservation of Number
Pre-operational children think the row on the
bottom has more. Later they develop
one-to-one correspondence.
They understand there is one for this
one, one for that one, and one for that one, etc.
Copyright (c) 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2.35
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Figure 7.4
2.36
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Short Answer
When a child can focus on both
width and length of two triangles
in order to compare their areas,
Piaget would say that the child is
capable of
_________________.
2.37
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage
Abstract reasoning: think in abstract, idealistic,
and logical ways
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: The
ability to develop hypotheses about ways to solve
problems and systematically reach a conclusion
Adolescent egocentrism: Heightened selfconsciousness and a sense of personal
uniqueness
2.38
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Features of Formal Operations
• Adolescent egocentrism:
– Imaginary audience: desire to
be on-stage, noticed, and
visible
– Personal fable: sense of
personal uniqueness and
indestructibility
“No one has ever felt like this
before!”
“I drive better when I’m drunk!”
Copyright (c) 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2.39
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Piaget’s Theory
Teaching Strategies
Preoperational
Thinkers
Manipulate groups of objects
Reduce egocentrism
Draw conclusions and explain why
Concrete
Operations
Encourage children to discover
concepts and principles
Assign operational tasks
Formal
Operations
Propose problems and encourage
hypothesis formation
Suggest alternative approaches to
problems
Develop projects and investigations
2.40
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism
Theory into Practice
Jennifer, James, and several of their classmates are
playing hide-and-go-seek during indoor recess one
rainy day. Jennifer carefully conceals her entire body
behind Mrs. Johnson’s long smock. In contrast, James
hides only his upper body behind a jacket hanging on a
hook. He giggles, sure that his classmates will never
see him.
Q: Based on the information given above, at which of
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development is James most
likely operating? Explain.
2.41
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism
Theory into Practice
Mr. Jackson has a sand table in his Kindergarten
classroom. He provides his students with many
containers of different sizes and shapes to play with
in the sand. He watches as his students carefully
pour sand from one container to another. One little
girl, Michelle, seems amazed when she pours sand
back and forth between two containers. The sand
always fills up one container and only half-fills the
other, yet the containers are the same height.
Q: Based on the information given above, what skill is
Michelle most likely developing? Explain.
2.42
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism
Theory into Practice
Mr. Welby teaches high school English. He always
asks his students to find the symbolism in the great
works of literature he assigns. Some students do this
with relative ease. For others it is a real struggle.
Many are only able to parrot back what he has told
them in class.
Q.1: At which of Piaget’s stages are those who
understand the symbolism in literature likely operating?
Q.2: At which of Piaget’s stages are those who cannot
understand the symbolism in literature likely operating?
2.43
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism
Theory into Practice
Marsha refuses to go to school one morning because
she is having a “bad hair day” and is certain that
everyone will stare at her all day. Her mother assures
her that she looks just fine. However, Marsha races
back to the bathroom to attempt to fix her “awful
hair”.
Q: What would Elkind say is happening here?
2.44
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Implications of Piaget Theory on Teaching
•
•
•
•
•
•
Developmentally Appropriate Education
Importance of Process
Active Learning
Self-Initiated Learning
Individual Learning Needs
Deemphasize Attempts to Make Children
Adult-like in Their Thinking
2.45
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Limitations of Piaget
• Stage theory
inconsistencies
• Underestimating
children's abilities
• Cognitive
development &
information
processing
• Overlooks
influence of
cultural and social
groups
2.46
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Criticisms and Revisions of
Piaget’s Theory
Tasks Can Be Taught Earlier
Exceptions to Egocentricity
Earlier Mastery of Object
Permanence
Development Depends on Task
Development Influenced by
Experience
2.47
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Vygotsky’s Theory
Cognitive skills
• Can be understood when they are
developmentally analyzed
• Are mediated by words, language,
and forms of discourse
• Have their origins embedded in a
sociocultural backdrop
2.48
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Vygotsky’s Theory
Language and Thought
Develop independently of
each other
Are mediated by words, language,
and forms of discourse
Have their origins imbedded in a
socio-cultural backdrop
Scaffolding
Teacher adjusts the level of
support as performance rises
Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD)
2.49
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Applications of Vygotsky’s Theory
1.
New Task
= Mentor
+ Learner
2. Time Passes =
Gradual Release
3. Learner Takes
on the
Responsibility
for learning
Scaffolding
2.50
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
ZPD
Tasks too difficult for child to master
even with assistance
Tasks child can master alone
2.51
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive
Development
• Key Ideas
− Historical and
Cultural Contexts
− Sign Systems
− Cultural Tools
2.52
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Applications of Vygotsky’s
Theory
• Provide Cooperative Learning
• Activities Among Students with Different
Ability Levels
2.53
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Comparing Piaget and
Vygotsky’s Theories
Piagetian Ideas:
Four discrete stages
Cognitive development is
limited by staes
Young children are
schematic
Motivation to maintain
cognitive equilibrium
Development occurs
when assimilation is not
possible (adaptation)
Both were
constructivists
Both believed that
social forces set the limits
of development
Vygotsky's ideas:
Continuous
development (no stages)
Zone of proximal
development
Socially transmitted
knowledge (cooperative
learning and Scaffolding)
Private speech helps
internalize knowledge
2.54
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism
Theory into Practice
Peter is having difficulty with his math assignment. His teacher,
Ms. Jacobs helps him work through the first problem step-bystep. Peter begins to understand the concepts and begins the
other problems. Suzanne also struggles with the assignment.
However, even when Ms. Jacobs works through the first
problem with her, she still cannot grasp how to do the remaining
problems. Meanwhile, Clarice has breezed through the
assignment with no difficulty at all.
Q.1: What would Vygotsky say about the
assignment for Peter?
Q.2: What would Vygotsky say about the
assignment for Suzanne?
2.55
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism
Theory into Practice
Peter is having difficulty with his math assignment. His teacher,
Ms. Jacobs helps him work through the first problem step-bystep. Peter begins to understand the concepts and begins the
other problems. Suzanne also struggles with the assignment.
However, even when Ms. Jacobs works through the first
problem with her, she still cannot grasp how to do the remaining
problems. Meanwhile, Clarice has breezed through the
assignment with no difficulty at all.
Q.3: What would Vygotsky say about the
assignment for Clarice?
Q.4: What would Vygotsky call the assistance Ms.
Jacobs gives Peter and Suzanne? Explain.
2.56
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Reflection & Observation
Reflection:
Identify an experience in which a more
competent person helped you learn
something you were unable to do
alone.
How did this person scaffold your
learning?
Observation:
Identify ways the preschool teacher
in the video clip scaffolds
students’ matching and
recognition of numerals.
2.57
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Cognitive and Language Development
Language
Development
What Is
Language?
How Language
Develops
Biological and
Environmental
Influences
2.58
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Language is …
…a form of communication, spoken, written, or
signed, that is based on a system of symbols.
Phonology
Language sounds
Morphemes
Strings of sounds that make up
words
Syntax
Rules for combining words into
phrases/sentences
Semantics
Word meanings/usage
Pragmatics
Word use in conversation
2.59
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Biological and Environmental Influences
on Language Development
Children are neither exclusively
biological linguists
nor
social architects of language.
Interactionists emphasize the contribution
of both.
2.60
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Supporting Vocabulary Development
Through Technology
Computers
– Relate the new to the known
– Promote active, in-depth processing
– Encourage reading
Audio Books
Educational Television
2.61