The President and
the Media
President Media
Relationships

The relation between the president and
media can best be evaluated in terms of
a game between the president and
media. In order to understand this game
we need to understand the interests of
each actor in engaging in interactions.

The president has both short and long
term goals. He wants: 1) Favorable
approval. 2) Policy favorability. 3) To
establish his historical legacy.

The media wants: 1) Information on the
conduct of the presidency that satisfies a
highly elastic demand function. That is,
the media is usually unwilling to pay a
high price (in terms of effort or time
spent) for the news. As the price goes
up, their demand goes sharply down. 2)
Favorable ratings by their editors and
more generally by the public.

Demand for readers and editors tends
them to focus on the negative, rather
than the positive.

The president tends to be highly
informed (or at least his staff does) about
the types of information it is willing to let
the media have. The presidency is
generally, but not fully in control, of what
the media wants, information.

The media has something the president
wants, namely, control over an
instrument which can facilitate approval,
policy goals of the president, as well as
the president’s historical legacy.

The relation is, therefore, a strategic one
in which both actors have something the
other wants. Bargaining of a sort occurs
to produce resultants.


The president wants:
 A sense from the media of what is
going on in the world. The pulse of
the public and a feeler for important
topics.

The media to convey the president’s
messages to other political leaders
both at home and abroad.

The media to help in communication
with the mass public.

Visibility above and beyond that of
other political leaders.
The media provide the public with most
of what they know about the president
and presidency. The media is the
principal intermediary between the
president and the public.

Many recent presidents read newspapers and
listened to the media in order to know what
was being said from and about them. The
New York Times, Washington Post, Wall
Street Journal. Kennedy, Johnson, and
Reagan were avid TV watchers. Johnson
was almost paranoid about the news and
reputedly had a three tv cabinet so he could
watch all three network news at once.
Johnson also had teletypes in the White
House so he could catch wire service
releases.
Reagan liked westerns, caring less about
news

Relations with the press are an important
part of the president’s effort to “lead” public
approval. Because of the great importance
of the press to the president, the White
House goes to great lengths to encourage
the media to project a positive image of the
president and his policies. Coordinating the
news, holding press conferences, formal
briefings, interviews, photo-ops, background
sessions, providing travel accommodations,
and daily press handouts. The presidency is
highly strategic in manipulating information
for release to the media.

However, the presidency cannot be fully
in control of information, or in the
media’s interpretation of information.
Leaks. Yellow journalism.

The media filters what is written and said
about the president and administration
based on journalistic values and demand.
The media is not simply a parrot of
presidential rhetoric, but an important
and independent actor in its own right.

First Amendment: Congress shall make
no law respecting an establishment of
religion, or prohibiting the free exercise
thereof; or abridging the freedom of
speech, or of the press; or the right of
the people to peaceably assemble, and to
petition the Government for redress of
grievances.

Yet, from the beginning, government has
attempted to place restrictions on the press.

Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798- The Adams
administration jailed many Democratic-Republican
partisan news editors and others for public
opposition to the Quasi-War with France

Espionage Act of 1917- The Wilson administration
prosecuted and emprisoned Socialist Party leader
Eugene Debs for making statements considered
disloyal to the World War I effort. Snowden
indicted under this law.

Congress passes the Sedition Act of 1918, which
forbids spoken or printed criticism of the U.S.
government, the Constitution or the flag.
1941- Roosevelt pardons those convicted earlier
under the Espionage and Sedition Acts. However,
Congress also authorizes Roosevelt to create the
Office of Censorship.
 A plethora of court cases dealing with free press.
See http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/firstamendment-timeline

Evolution of Media
Coverage

In the Founding Era most media
coverage occurred through the print
media. Between 1790 and 1808, the
number of newspapers in the United
States grew from 92 to 329. All but 56
were identified with a political party.
Printed pamphlets were also an important
means of communications.

Technical innovations between 1860 and
1920 permanently altered the press in
the U.S.. Electronic printing press,
telegraph, typewriter, telephone,
linotype, woodpulp paper. Newspapers
grew in importance, and electronic media
increased the rate at which information
could be transmitted. The public became
increasingly literate. With these
developments the presidency was no
longer an isolated institution.

Innovations in the media accelerated in the
1950s with television.

In the 1980s with cable news networks.

And in the 1990s with the internet. Now it is
very easy to get news on the presidency and
coverage is sometimes around the clock for
important issues.

The press has always subjected the president
to criticism, from Washington onwards.
Washington said, that the “calumnies”
against his administration were “outrages of
commmon decency” motivated by the desire
to destroy confidence in the new government.

Adams was so upset with the press that he
supported the Alien and Sedition Acts. He
actually jailed many journalists under its
authority. Abigail Adams was very upset at
the personal attacks on her husband,
including references to “his rotundity” and
bald head.

One could argue that the press “brought
down” the Johnson presidency with reporting
on Vietnam, as well as the Nixon presidency
through the relentless journalism of
Woodward and Bernstein, and deep throat.

The Reagan presidency was treated,
relatively speaking, with kid gloves by the
press until the Iran-Contra scandal broke.
Some have argued that this was because
Reagan was a former member of the press
elite. However, his vulnerability showed
through with Iran-Contra.

George H. W. Bush was unhappy with the
media’s portrayal of Bush as an elitist
and a bumbler.

The Clinton administration was unhappy
with initial press treatment during his
campaign and after (personal allegations
of corruption with no basis; did not deal
with the issues in the campaign).
Initially, Clinton did not have “insiders”
dealing with his press coverage, but
rather brought on board campaign
advocates. When hired David Gergen he
did better.

Relatively speaking, George W. Bush
received a prolonged holiday from the
press, especially after 9/11. Very little
negative coverage during the 2000
election campaign and up until the Iraq
invasion.

However, during the 2004 election year
and after, that changed considerably as
the news media picked up on problems
with the incumbency and war skepticism.

The non-partisan Center for Media and
Politics conducts and/or reports studies of
how presidents and candidates fare with
the mainstream media. http://cmpa.com

For example, to see how various
candidates in prior elections fared with
the press you might look at this study of
the 2004 election.
http://cmpa.gmu.edu/wpcontent/uploads/2013/10/prev_pres_elect
ions/2004/04novdec.pdf
Or, to see how Obama has fared with the
press since the 2008 election you might
check out this link.
http://cmpa.gmu.edu/obamas-mediaimage-compared-to-what/ Or, this one
gives a comparative perspective.
http://cmpa.gmu.edu/study-obamasmedia-coverage-sours/


The media is particularly interested in
reporting a scandal. So much so that they
sometimes rush with a story that might
become a scandal, without first confirming the
the facts.

For example, consider the controversy over
Hillary Clinton’s use of a personal email
account.

Check out this report from Media Matters
http://mediamatters.org/blog/2015/03/12/cnn
-quietly-updates-sloppy-report-on-clintonem/202870

I can tell you from personal experience that
they almost always get it wrong with the stuff
I’ve given them.
White House To Media
Relations

Who regularly covers the White House?
Newspapers such as the Washington
Post, New York Times, Wall Street
Journal, weekly news magazines like
Time, Newsweek, U.S. News and World
Report; wire services like Associated
Press, United Press International,
Reuters; newspaper chains like Hearst,
Scripps-Howard, Newhouse, KnightRidder; television and news networks like
ABC, CBS, NBC, CNN.

More than 1700 persons have White
House press credentials. However, fewer
than 70 reporters and 15 photographers
regularly cover the White House. Most
newpapers have no regular Washington
correspondent.

A few political scientists are also allowed
in the press room (e.g., Martha Joynt
Kumar, Towson University).

The presidential press operation. About
1/3 of the high-level White House staff is
directly involved in media relations and
policy of one type or another. Most staff
members are involved at one time or
another in cultivating the media’s
portrayal of the president.

White House Press Secretary is the
person most often dealt with. These
individuals are responsible for two way
interactions. From the president to the
media, and from the media to the
president. Conduits of information from
the White House to the press. Public
policy statements; White House press
releases; Responsible for making sure
that policy and position is clear (or
unclear) under some circumstances. The
hold private meetings with reporters.

The credibility of the Press Secretary
rests on two important factors: 1) truth
and 2) access to the president. For
example, Clinton’s first press secretary,
Dee Dee Myers was perceived as not
being close to the inner circle. As a
result she didn’t last very long.

Who is President Obama’s current Press
Secretary?

Josh Earnest. He is Obama’s third Press
Secretary and took over from Jay Carney
who left to work for CNN.

Press secretaries also serve as conduits
from the press to the president. They
transmit needs from the press.

Press secretaries are not typically
involved in substantive decisionmaking,
but they are sometimes asked for advice
on what information should be released,
by whom, in what form, and to what
audience.

Office of Communications
 coordinates the flow of news from the
entire executive branch.
 targets local non-Washington news
outlets.
 develops a long-term news
management plan for the president.

Through their press secretaries,
presidents communicate through daily
press briefings. You can see these daily
press briefings at
http://www.whitehouse.gov/briefingroom/press-briefings .

Presidents also communicate through
Major Speeches and various media
events, usually staged. You can read
these off the White House web site at the
links for major speeches.
http://www.whitehouse.gov/

Recent presidents have used a weekly
address, usually on Saturday. This originated
during the F. D. Roosevelt administration, was
used by presidents sporadically after that, but
has been used by all presidents since Reagan
regularly. Reagan through Bush II, radio; Bush
II, podcasts; Obama video and podcasts. You
can listen (sometimes) or read the text of the
president’s weekly address by going to the
link at http://www.whitehouse.gov/briefingroom/weekly-address

Presidential press conferences- Direct
interaction between the president and the
media’s representatives. With the advent of
television, these were also direct interactions
between the president and the public.

Truman through Reagan generally employed a
large room. In 1982 Reagan began holding
full scale mock news conferences. Presidents
have frequently begun their news conferences
with a carefully prepared opening statement.
An attempt to control the agenda and also to
use the media for their own purposes.

Clinton had a practice of granting time to
“local” media, in effect bypassing the
national media.

Presidents, through these opening
statements, attempted to jump over the
reporters going directly to the people.

Recently the television networks have
diminished coverage of news conferences
because of their inability to control the
agenda. They were seen as political tools
of the president, rather than the
advantage fo the media.

Recent presidents have used fewer formal
news conferences. Frequency has varied
through time from about seven a month
during Roosevelt to about one every two
months during Nixon and Reagan.

Bush I broke with tradition and held instead
brief informal sessions with reporters, often
called on short notice.

Clinton had an antagonistic view of the press
and did not hold his first for 2 months, and
until 5 months before he held done in prime
time viewing hours. Hired David Gergen.

In your text you get a sense of how often
different presidents have used news
conferences.

Bush II rarely held a news conference.

Obama gives interviews and speeches, but
seldom holds a news conference.

Other services for the press.

Background discussion with reporters
for policy initiatives. Most common is
called a “briefing”. Briefings provide
information on anything current, from
policy initiatives to family pets to the
president’s health. Gives the press
lines on the president’s mood and
ideas. See the press briefings at
http://www.whitehouse.gov/briefingroom/press-briefings

Interviews with the president or top
White House officials are a valued
commodity. Sometimes the White
House uses these for its own
purposes. A strategic game.
Presidents have regularly “cultivated”
elite reporters and columnists, trying
to turn them to their own purposes.
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Transcripts of briefings.
Presidential speeches
Daily handouts including myriad
information about the president and
policies
Advance notice of travel plans
Upcoming stories
Major announcements
Arranging transportation and lodging
for the press on trips
Technical support including installing
equipment permanently, obtaining
telephones for reporters, platforms for
photographers.
Reporters tend to view mid-level aides as
the best source of information. Have in
depth knowledge and free from
constraints of high visibility.

The press is “very” dependent on the
support of the White House in several
ways. 1) Information, 2) Technical
support. The press NEEDS information
and the best place to get it is the White
House. The press operate in very much
a controlled environment.

White House manipulates “subject
matter”, timing of releases, wording of
releases, and tries to manipulate the
media to its own advantages.
Media Coverage of the
Presidency

As noted earlier, the media is an
independent actor in the American
system. This is guaranteed by the first
amendment and norms of the profession.

One important norm of the media
profession is objectivity. Reporters who
are biased in their coverage rarely
achieve prominence.

Another important norm is to verify
sources for stories. A single source is not
enough. It must be verified by multiple
sources.

Yet another norm is confidentiality of
sources.

Reporters tend to view mid-level aides as
the best source of information on the
presidency. Have in depth knowledge
and are free from constraints of visibility.

Leaks are an important phenomenon in
media coverage of the presidency.

The White House would like to control
the flow of information, but usually can’t
fully.

Reporters vigorously protect the identity
of “spokes-persons.” Witness for
example the melee over who leaked the
identity of an undercover CIA agent in
retaliation for exposing intelligence on
transfer of nuclear technology to Iraq.
This was associated with President
Bush’s State of the Union address who
cited the intelligence.

The easy solution for the investigation
would have been to simply ask the six
reporters. However, they would not give
up the name claiming first amendment
privilege without extreme coercion.

Who leaks information? Everyone. David
Stockman released information on
Reagan’s willingness to compromise on
the 81 tax bill. Oliver North leaked
information on the Achille Lauro
highjackers.

Clinton’s image of dishonesty flowed out
of the continual leaks from Ken Starr’s
Office of Special Whitewater Prosecutor.
These were leaks that were virtually all
unsubstantiated. No one ever knew the
source of the leaks because of the norm
of confidentiality.

Likewise, someone in the Bush White
House/administration leaked the identity
of an undercover CIA operative to at
least six reporters, apparently in
retaliation for exposing weak intelligence
relating to the president’s State of the
Union message.

Scooter Libby, press secretary for Dick
Cheney went to jail over this leak. It is a
violation of U.S. law to “out” a security
operative.

Sometimes leaks are inadvertent. Other
times they are deliberate to bolster or
damage the administration on particular
policy matters. Not all favor the
president’s position. Other times they
are deliberate to gain strategic policy
advantage or to mis-inform.

Leaks can have many purposes
depending on who is doing the leaking,
friends or enemies.
 Trial balloons
 Effort to get favorable reporting on
particular policy
 Send signals to foreign nations
 Disavow publicly after a leak
 Personnel matters to get a resignation
 Force the president’s hand on foreign
policy matters.

Depending on the media type, there may
be an air of superficiality to media
coverage of the president. Newspapers
tend to be more in-depth and less
superficial than visual media.

Organizational imperatives from the
media are to get information, any
information on the president. This is
driven by organizatonal imperatives.

Most media coverage on the presidency
is therefore superficial, characterized by
brevity and simplicity.

In particular since the 30 minute news
cast is the source of most people’s news,
about a 3 minute spot is the most
allowable. This severely limits
information transmission.

Another reason for the superficiality is
that “there is little new under the sun.”
The presidency is still the presidency, and
once the uniqueness of a new presidency
has worn off there is little new to report.

Yet another reason for the superficiality is
the limited training and lack of
specialization of the White House press
corps. They often don’t know much
about politics, the constitution, or the
issues in democracy. Therefore, they
focus on “politics” in the infighting sense,
as well as personalities, rather than
issues and matters of substantive policy
concern.

With the print media, despite the glamour
of investigative reporting such as with
Woodward and Bernstein, the
Washington Post, and Watergate,
precious little is done. It takes too much
time, and is too uncertain of a payoff to
the reporter. Occasionally one sees a
story with some potential payoff, but the
risks are great for devoting substantial
resources to a story such as the leak on
the undercover CIA operative.

Emphasis on short run in coverage of the
presidency. Emphasis on trivia, rather
than important substantive policy
matters.

Does the press show a systematic bias
for or against particular presidents? Not
generally according to most political
science quantitative empirical research.

Why no bias?
 Norm of objectivity.
 Reporters tend not to be from one
political party, so that while one
reporter may be biased, there may be
others in the other direction.
 Rotating assignments produces more
objective news coverage.
 Basically both Democrats and
Republicans fall under the critical eye
of the press.

The press prefers to frame the news in
themes. Once a theme is established, it
is hard to shed. Ford depicted as a
bumbler, Carter as a weak, indecisive
leader, Dan Quayle as an “ignoramus”,
which he was not, Reagan as a great
symbolic leader, Bush I as a waffler on
“no new taxes”, Clinton as caring about
people, but also dishonest and a
womanizer, and the current Bush as ???.

Is the media effective in influencing
approval of the president?

Most studies have found little or no
relation between media coverage of the
president and public approval.

Why not? The media affect perceptions,
rather than attitudes. The public’s
familiarity with political matters is closely
related to the amount of time they are
exposed to media coverage. The media
is an agenda setter. People readily adopt
the media’s perception of what issues
are important. While the question of
what issues are important is determined
by the media, the question of how to feel
about those issues is determined more by
partisanship and political values.

There is growing evidence that network
news helps to provide a frame of
reference for issues and that this affects
evaluations of the president. Iran-Contra
coverage coincided with a dip in
Reagan’s approval. Experiments found
that President Carter’s overall reputation
and competency were affected by
network news coverage.

The press is good at producing images.
For example, Carter’s image as
indecisive flowed out of press coverage
of the Iran Hostage crisis.