The Potter Box Model of
Reasoning
The Liverpool Murder Case
• British law prohibits
reporting the names and
family histories of children
facing criminal charges
until their trials are
complete. Is the legal
standard the only possible
one we can use to evaluate
this case?
The above picture taken from a shopping
center security camera shows two-year-old
Jason Bugler being kidnapped from his
mother by two ten-year-olds who would
eventually brutally murder the child.
• Is Britain’s domestic
standard compelling for
the international media?
Ethics and Values
• Ethics - the discipline dealing with what is
morally right or wrong, good or bad.
• Ethical system describes the critical process
of how we work through moral issues
• Values - the accepted principles or standards
of an individual or a group
• All decision-making involves values which
reflect our presuppositions about social life
and human nature!
Types of Values
Professional
Moral Values Aesthetic Logical
Socio-cultural
Proximity
Firstness
Impact/magnitude
Recency
Conflict
Human Interest
Entertainment
Novelty
Toughness
Thoroughness
Immediacy
Independence
No prior restraint
Public’s right to
know
Watchdog
Truthtelling
Harmonious Consistent
Humanness
Pleasing
Competent
Justice/fairness Imaginative KnowledgeFreedom
able
Independence
Stewardship
Honesty
Nonviolence
Commitment
Self-control
Thrift
Hard work
Energy
Restraint
Heterosexuality
Values Used by the British
Values Used by the
Press
American Press
• Legal value: Honor the
• Professional value: Do
court restrictions against
not suppress public
reporting juvenile
information.
names and family
background.
Principles Used by the
Principles Used by the
British Press
American Press
• Other-regarding care:
• Truth-telling: All people
The privacy of children
have a right to know the
facing criminal charges
truth. The truth must be
must be protected at all
proclaimed
under
all
costs.
conditions.
Resulting Action of the
British Press
Withhold information
about the defendants
including names and
personal histories
Resulting Action of the
American Press
Print names of
defendants and
information on their
personal histories.
WE NEED A GUIDELINE OR MODEL FOR ETHICAL
DECISIONMAKING!!
THE POTTER BOX
The “Potter Box”
Ralph Benajah Potter, Jr., who retired in July
2003, began teaching at HDS in 1965. He is an
ordained Presbyterian minister and the author of
the book War and Moral Discourse and assorted
scholarly articles. He is a founding fellow of the
• Dr. Ralph Benajah
Hastings Center for Bioethics and is a member
Potter, Jr.
of the American Academy of Religion, the
• Professor of Social
Society for Christian Ethics, Societe Europeene
Ethics Emeritus
BA, Occidental
de Culture, the Society for Values in Higher
College
Education, and, at Harvard, the Senior Common
BD, McCormick
Room of Lowell House. His 1997 HDS
Theological
Seminary
Convocation Address was titled "Moralists,
ThD, Harvard
Maxims and Formation for Ministry."
University
Source:http://www.hds.harvard.edu/faculty/em/potter.html
Four Dimensions of Moral Analysis
Definition
Loyalties
↓
Values
↑
→
Principles
Potter Box
Feedback
Particular Judgment
or Policy
Sociological
Immediate
Facts
Empirical Definition
Choosing Loyalties
External
Philosophical
Reflective
Internal
Identifying Values
Appeal to Ethical
Principles
both positive
& negative
virtue, duty, utility,
rights, love
Potter Box Applied to the
Liverpool Murder Case
JUDGMENT
British Television: withhold broadcasting
SITUATION
U.S. Newspaper: publish names and
details
Two ten-year-olds go to trial for
kidnapping and brutally murdering
two-year-old Jason Bugler
LOYALTIES
British Television: to juvenile
defendants and their families
U.S. Newspaper: to general readership
VALUES
PRINCIPLE
British Television: honor the court
restrictions against reporting
juvenile names
British Television: otherregarding care
U.S. Newspaper: do not suppress
public information
U.S. Newspaper: truthtelling is
categorical imperative
Determining the Ethical Decision
• Is there a universal ground for making ethical
decisions, an overarching theory from which
we can choose among competing alternatives?
• Or is ethical decision making simply a process
of adjusting to the mores and commitments of
a given community?
The Potter Box accounts for both.
• Without an appeal to an explicit ethical
principle, a conclusion is not considered
morally justified.
Evaluation With the Potter Box Model
• When competing values seem appropriate,
resolution usually occurs in step three (ethical
principles).
• When two different ethical theories are relevant,
the adequacy of the theories themselves must be
evaluated through metaphysics or theology.
• Occasionally, the ethical choice is not apparent
until quadrant four, loyalties, as in the case of the
Liverpool murder.
Why We Study the Process By
Which Choices Are Made
• Knowing the elements in moral analysis
sharpens our vocabulary and enhances our
discussion of media ethics
• Understanding the logic of social ethics
improves the quality of our conceptual work
and the validity of the choices we make in
media practice.
• The four dimensions of the Potter Box allow
us to develop normative ethics.
Additional Links
Finding a Philosophical Perspective A discussion
of different approaches to ethics including the
Potter Box
The Effects of Journalism Loyalties on the
Invasion of Privacy A discussion of the loyalties
of the journalist according to the Potter Box.
Scenarios Test yourself in applying the Potter Box
model of ethical reasoning to these public
relations scenarios.
Digital Manipulation: Issues and Ethics in
Photojournalism An actual case of journalistic
ethics analyzed according to the Potter Box.
Using Ethical Principles
Guidelines
1. Always treat specifics very carefully.
2. Values must be isolated and accounted for.
3. Values must be checked, questioned, or
corrected using steps three and four of the
Potter Box.
Use of Ethical Principles
No conclusion can be morally justified without a clear
demonstration that an ethical principle shaped the final decision.
What Actually Happens
What Ought to Happen
Definition
Loyalties
Values
Principles
Descriptive
Normative
Ethics vs. Values
• Ethics involves an understanding of
theology and philosophy as well as debates
in the history of ideas over justice, virtue,
the good, etc.
• Values pervade all dimensions of human
experience, even scientific experimentation.
Challenging Moral Norms
• Our society challenges the practice of
searching for moral norms.
• BUT norms rightly understood are
foundational for moral commitment.
Purpose of Sound Ethical
Reasoning
• Allows us to draw responsible conclusions
that yield justifiable actions
• Helps us to determine which ethical theory
is most powerful under which conditions
Five Categories of Ethical Theories
1. Ethical Theories based on
Virtue
Aristotle’s Mean/Confucius’
Golden Mean
2. Ethical Theories based on
Duty
Kant’s Categorical
Imperative
3. Ethical Theories based on
Utility
Mill’s Principle of Utility
4. Ethical Theories based on
Rights
Rawls’s Veil of Ignorance
5. Ethical Theories based on
Love
Judeo-Christian Persons as
Ends
Ethical Guidelines Based on
Virtue
Aristotle’s Mean
Confucius’ Golden Mean
Aristotle’s Mean
“Moral virtue is a
middle state determined
by practical wisdom”
Four Cardinal Virtues
TEMPERANCE
JUSTICE
COURAGE
WISDOM
Extremes
Indifference
Cowardice
Caution
JUSTICE
Indulgence
COURAGE
Temerity
WISDOM
Spontaneity
Main Ideas
• Propriety before duty or love
• Character over conduct
• Outer behavior as a reflection of inner
disposition
• Equilibrium and harmony
Practical Wisdom
• Phronesis
• Moral discernment
• Knowledge of the proper ends (telos) of
conduct and the means of attaining them
• Distinct from both theoretical knowledge
and technical skill
Using Practical Wisdom
• Applied to “individual facts” by locating
“the mean between two vices, that which
depends on excess and that which depends
on defect”
• Examples
– Case 16
– Case 29
Exceptions
• Not all actions or emotions can be justified by a
middle state
• What actions and emotions are intrinsically
wicked whether or not they are practiced with
temperance?
Spite
Adultery
Shamelessness
Theft
Envy
Murder
Summary of Aristotle’s Mean
• NOT a weak-minded consensus
• NOT a compromise
• NOT a mathematically equal distance
between two extremes
• Aristotle’s mean involves the correct
quantity, the correct timing, the correct
people, the correct motives, and the correct
manner
Confucius’ Golden Mean
“Moral virtue is the
appropriate location
between two
extremes”
Main Ideas
• Rooted in virtue
• Virtue as benevolence, kindness, generosity,
and balance (a mean between two extremes)
• Excellence dependent on character not
social position
Equilibrium and Harmony
“Equilibrium (chung) is the great root from
which grow all human actings in the world.
And harmony (yung) is the universal path all
should pursue. Let the states of equilibrium
and harmony exist in perfection, and happy
order will prevail throughout heaven and
earth, and all things will be nourished and
flourish”
Applying Confucius’ Golden
Mean
1. Identify all extremes
2. Resolve competing obligations using the
Golden Mean
3. Reject any extremes
4. Choose the middle path
Additional Links
Nicomachean Ethics An online version of
Aristotle’s text. Book II, chapter 6 is a good
place to start.
Aristotle Overview This article describes the life,
writings, ethics, and politics of Aristotle.
Aristotle’s “Doctrine of the Mean” A chart
illustrating Aristotle’s concepts of virtue and
vice.
Confucius An overview of Confucian beliefs
The Doctrine of the Mean An online version of the
article by Confucius cited by the text
Ethical Guidelines Based on
Duty
Kant’s Categorical Imperative
Kant’s Categorical Imperative
“Act only on that
maxim whereby you
can at the same
time will that it
should become a
universal law”
Main Ideas
• Ethics are objective
• Any genuine moral obligation can be
universalized
• Categorical = unconditional
• What is right must be done regardless of
circumstances
• Existence of higher truths
• Deontological ethics
Higher Truths
• Noumena
• Superior to reason
• Transcend physical universe
• Innate in human beings
• Apprehended by conscience NOT reason
Deontological Ethics
• From deon (Greek for duty)
• Rule determines the result
• Rule is the basis of the act
• Rule is good regardless of the act
• Result always calculated within the rules
Application of Kant’s
Categorical Imperative
• Moral law is unconditionally binding on all
rational beings.
• Certain actions are always wrong.
• Certain actions are always right.
• Examples
Questions to Consider
• What happens when there is a conflict of
duties? (2 rules that are universalized)
• Is every rule we would universalize a moral
duty?
• Can we truly ignore results in decisionmaking?
• Do we really want to make reason the final,
sole authority in determining right and
wrong?
Additional Links
Critique of Practical Reason The online version of
Kant’s writings on epistemology and ethics.
Kant’s Argument for the Categorical Imperative An
outline of Kant’s reasoning for the categorical
imperative
Immanuel Kant and the Categorical Imperative A
critical evaluation of Kant’s categorical
imperative
Kant’s Four Examples of How to Apply the
Categorical Imperative Kant’s own application
from his work, Fundamental Principles of the
Metaphysic of Morals
Ethical Guidelines Based on
Utility
Mill’s Principle of Utility
Mill’s Principle of Utility
“Seek the greatest
happiness for the
greatest number”
Main Ideas
• Consider what course will yield the best
consequences for the welfare of human
beings
• Ethical choice produces the greatest balance
of good over evil
• Good end must be promoted, bad end must
be restrained
The Good End
• Happiness or pleasure
• To Mill, preventing pain and promoting
pleasure are the only desirable ends.
• Pluralistic utilitarians argue that other
values besides happiness possess intrinsic
worth (friendship, knowledge, health).
– Rightness or wrongness assessed according to
total value ultimately produced
Application of the Principle of
Utility
1. Calculate the consequences of various
options. How much benefit and how
much harm would result in the lives of
everyone affected, including ourselves?
2. Choose the alternative that both
A. Produces the greatest possible balance of
good over evil
B. Distributes this balance as widely as possible
Two Types of Utilitarianism
1. Act Utilitarianism: Greatest good in a
specific case
Will a particular action in a particular
situation result in a balance of good over
evil?
2. Rule Utilitarianism: Greatest good for
general welfare
Will a general rule result in a balance of
good over evil?
Questions to Consider
• How do we account for the long term
consequences of a decision that are not
always able to be forseen?
• What if the majority rejects basic standards
of decency?
• What problems are generated by defining
the public good as the sum total of all
private goods?
Additional Links
John Stuart Mill A description of Mill’s life
and writings.
What Utilitarianism Is John Stuart Mill’s
explanation of the principle of utility from
his book, Utilitarianism.
A Millian Critique of Library Censorship A
discussion of utilitarian arguments in favor
of and against censorship.
Intellectual Property, Innovation, and Social
Progress Intellectual property is evaluated
from the perspective of utilitarianism.
Ethical Guidelines Based on
Rights
Rawls’s Veil of Ignorance
Rawls’s Veil of Ignorance
“Justice emerges when
negotiating without social
differentiations”
Rawls’s Veil of Ignorance
Justice
This
means
Fairness =
Justice
(sometimes
means
quantity)
Helps
determine
what is
“right” in
any given
situation
Same reward
given to
everyone for
same work
Who you are, what
you have shouldn’t
determine what you
now should get
No arbitrary
distinctions can
determine who
receives what; or
what is “right” in
any situation
(although
inherent ones
may)
SO, we set up the
“veil” to help
eliminate these
distinctions
This is the
veil....we step
behind it to make
decisions - the
other side is “real
life”
Helps us iron out
a “social contract’
that by definition
is just
Gives the “little
guy” a leg up
It functions like a Barrier: keeps out race, class,
gender, group interests, sexual orientation, age,
occupations, etc. -- puts players on equal playing
field -- decisions based on “fairness”
Main Ideas
• Fairness fundamental to justice
• Egalitarian perspective
• Fairness as quantitative in basic cases
• Elimination of arbitrary distinction
• Emphasizes the morally appropriate action,
not the action that benefits the most people
Veil of Ignorance
• Roles and social differentiations eliminated
• Race, class, gender, and other personality
features suspended behind the veil
• Equality behind the veil intended to protect
the weaker party and minimize risks
Two Principles
1. Maximal system of equal basic liberty
2. All social goods other than liberty may be
distributed unequally only if distribution
favors the least advantaged side
Additional Links
John Rawls A biographical sketch of Rawls
along with a discussion of his major works.
John Rawls and the Social Contract An
evaluation of Rawls’s theory of justice as
fairness.
The Antipolitical Philosophy of John Rawls This
article considers whether Rawls’s idea of
justice is applicable in the modern world.
A Just Man Michael Sandel’s article, referred to
in the above link, discussed Rawls’s
contributions.
Ethical Guidelines Based on
Love
Judeo-Christian Persons as Ends
Noddings’ Relational Ethics
Judeo Christian Persons as Ends
“Love your neighbor as yourself”
“What is the Will of Heaven like? The
answer is – To love all men everywhere
alike”
Main Ideas
• All moral obligations derived from the
command to love God and humankind
• Love for neighbor as normative
• Regard for others as personal, not legalistic
(as with Rawls’s contract)
• Humans made in the image of God and with
unconditional value apart regardless of
circumstances
Agape Love
• Unselfishness, other-regarding care
• Much more than friendship, charity, or
benevolence
• To love is to accept a person as he or she is
with unalterable commitment and
permanent loyalty
• People are never given instrumental value
Concerns
• Failure of adherents to practice agape love
• Love vs. justice
• Reason as distinct from discernment
• Whether agape is universal or had
continuity with other alternatives
Advantages
• Practical, gives help to those who need it
• Avoids discrimination without denying
distinctions
• Does not presume to assign value to an
individual
Noddings’ Relational Ethics
“The ‘one-caring’
attends to the
‘cared-for’ in
thought and deeds”
Main Ideas
• Ethics rooted in relationships
• Emphasizes nurturing and caring for people,
not avoiding harm to others
• Roles of the one-caring and the cared-for
• Three dimensions: engrossment,
motivational displacement, and reciprocity
Additional Links
Agape in Feminist Ethics This article describes
several different approaches to other-regard,
contrasting Protestant and feminist appraisals of
agape.
Can Agape Be Universalized? The test of
universalizability is applied to agape.
Care Ethics and Virtue Ethics A critical evaluation
of Noddings’ care ethics.
Longing for the Sacred in Schools: A
Conversation with Nel Noddings Nel Noddings
defends the place of spirituality in public
education.
To Whom Is Moral Duty
Owed?
Who Ought to Decide?
Five Categories of Obligation
1. Duty to ourselves
2. Duty to clients / subscribers / supporters
3. Duty to our organization or firm
4. Duty to professional colleagues
5. Duty to society
Loyalties
• Duty to society is critical
• Ethical decision-making must be marked by
a sincere sense of social responsibility and a
genuine concern for the citizenry
• In the Potter Box the loyalty component
necessitates the acknowledgment of the
implications of a decision for institutions
and social groups before an ethical decision
is made.
Accountability
• Are parents alone accountable for the programs
their children watch, or do advertisers and
networks carry responsibility also?
• Can producers of entertainment dismiss their
responsibility for quality programming by arguing
that they merely give the public what it wants
• Requiring accountability across the board
preferable to giving absolute authority to one
person or group.
Individuals
• The individual is the authentic moral agent.
• Though corporations are real, they are not
concrete enough to be assigned praise or
blame in any real sense.
• Ultimately it is the individual who will be
held responsible.
Corporate Obligation
• Corporate obligation still meaningful
• Ultimate responsibility rests with
individuals but must be distributed among
the individuals constituting a corporation.
• Broad attacks on entire media systems are
not helpful. Ethics is fundamentally
concerned with individual choices.