Chapter 21
• Industrialization spread to western and
central Europe and North America, as new
inventions and scientific discoveries made
those that had earlier turned Britain into
the first industrial nation obsolete.
The Second Industrial Revolution
• Steel Leads the Way
– Chemicals
• Textile manufactures could use inexpensive synthetic dyes,
and paper manufacturers could process wood pulp more
efficiently
• Germany’s laboratories developed industrial uses for
chemicals.
– Electricity and Petroleum
• The electrical dynamo, steam turbine, and the internal
combustion engine became sources of power
• New Transportation and Communication
Networks
The Second Industrial Revolution
– Railroad Building
• Before 1850, few people had seen the world; by 1914,
millions traveled enormous distances.
– Internal Combustion Engine
• Gottlieb Daimler attached his combustion engie to a wagon,
the automobile was born
– Telegraph and Telephone
• In 1844, Samuel Morse sent a message by wire 40 miles, in
1866, ships laid telegraph cable across the Atlantic, and in
1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone.
• The Birth of Big Business
The Second Industrial Revolution
– Monopolies
• Corporations combined into gigantic trusts called cartels in
Germany
• By 1914, big business controlled a large share of industrial
production in the West.
• The Lure of Shopping
– Department Stores
• They rose up in major cities across the West, and displayed
a dazzling array of enticing goods
• Prices were fixed and aimed at the middle classes
• Winners and Losers in the Race for Wealth
The Second Industrial Revolution
– Western and Non-Western Worlds
• Germany and the United States rose to challenge and
sometimes surpass Great Britain
• Industrialization spread unevenly east to Russia, and areas
in Europe that held on to old ways of making a living fell
further behind
– New Wealth
• Food prices came down, and prices for manufactured
products dropped as the new machines and processes made
production more efficient
• A rise in wages for workers
– Hard Times
• Many people remained in poverty, and few could expect to
retire without sinking into dependence or impoverishment
Chapter 21
• As Europe’s population expanded, a
majority now made their homes in the
cities, leading many rural villages to
decline.
• Rebuilding Cities
– Sewers and Subways
Chapter 21
• The urban population, now divided into
distinct social classes, continued to live in
close proximity but also in very different
conditions.
• On Top of it All: The Urban Elite
City People
• Pride and Success: the “Solid” Middle Class
– Women and Work
• Beliefs that women and men belonged in “separate spheres”
persisted
• Women engaged in philanthropic activities, but only a few
women managed to carve out careers in business, teaching,
writing, or painting
• They were excluded from universities
– Values
• They praised discipline, control, and respectability; and
attacked public drunkenness, emotional outbursts, and open
displays of sexual affection
• They respected Christian morality, marital fidelity,
cleanliness, purity, and modernity.
City People
• Hard Working and Hopeful: The LowerMiddle Class
– Social Mobility
• Moving up remained more the exception that the
rule, possibilities were far greater than before 1850
• The “Other Half”: The Working Classes
• What to Do About “Them”
Chapter 21
• New forms of recreation and sports were
enjoyed by many urban residents, while
other New forms of leisure, such as travel,
were only available to members of certain
social classes.
• Building Character Through Athletics
• The New Tourist
Chapter 21
• As spheres outside the public arena and its
increasing tempo of daily life, the family and the
home became places of refuge and sources of
comfort, while the self became a matter of
intense introspection.
• Family: The Promise of Happiness
– Recording Private Life
• People recorded moments of private life in letters, diaries,
and photographs
• Written correspondence held the family together during
travel, diaries reveal much self-concern and introspection,
and people took photographs to capture occasions
Private Life: Together and Alone at
Home
• A Home of One’s Own
– Servants
• They shared middle-class homes, but their quarters were in
the attic or basement, and they had little freedom to move
about the house
– Women’s Roles
• Society glorified women’s domestic role more than ever, and
their highest duty was to bear and raise children
• Poor Housing
– Working-Class Women
• They usually worked in factories or did piecework at home
• Poorly paid
Private Life: Together and Alone at
Home
• Intimacy and Morality
– Victorian Morality
• Sex was supposed to be little discussed and limited to
marriage, and those with sexual problems turned to their
doctors
• Most often women were blamed for forcing their husbands to
visit prostitutes or for having inappropriate sexual appetites
• Doctors warned men that masturbation would drain their
strength, condemned it by females, and prescribed
orthopedic devices, special bandages, and belts for youths
• Homosexuality was labeled as a sickness or psychological
disorder
• Sexual Realities
Private Life: Together and Alone at
Home
– Birth Control
• Many used the old methods, abstinence and
withdrawal
• Men began using condoms, women douched or
used diaphragms and sponges soaked in
disinfectants, and resorted to abortion as a method
of birth control
– New Attitudes
• People accepted and expected mutual sexual
enjoyment within marriage
• Psychic Stress and Alcoholism
Chapter 21
• Many people believed science would find
solutions to the problems plaguing
humans, and, indeed, scientists made
discoveries that translated into advances
in industry and medicine, while
intellectuals and artists tried to explain the
changing world.
Science in an Age of Optimism
• Science, Evolution, and Religion
– Darwin
• Studied medicine and theology, but the world of plants and
animals became his passion
• He questioned – How have all living species come to be as
they are today?
– Controversy
• Much of the scientific world quickly accepted Darwin’s theory
of evolution
– Social Darwinists
• Extended Darwin’s theory beyond its scientific foundations by
making it the key to truth and progress
• Saw the notion of survival of the fittest as justification for the
harsh competitiveness of humans
Science in an Age of Optimism
– Darwinism and Religion
• Darwin’s ideas threatened many people who believed in
Christianity
• Many Christians accepted some of Darwin’s ideas, but his
views offended numerous others
• Mysteries of the Material and Human World
– Physics and Chemistry
• Scientists concluded that all matter was composed of atoms,
that each atom was in turn made up of smaller particles that
moved in circles, and that each chemical element of matter
had a specific atomic weight
– Psychology
• The study of human behavior
Science in an Age of Optimism
– Sociology
• Humans and society are susceptible to scientific behavior
– History
• Historians strove to turn history into a social science
• Germs, Cures, and Health Care
– Pasteur and Germ Theory
• He became interested in what happened to wine and beer
during the fermentation process, and he demonstrated that
heating milk destroyed the bacteria that caused diseases.
– Remedies
• Aspirin reduced fever, inflammation, and minor pain;
barbiturates induce sleep
• Doctors could stop dangerous procedures such as
bloodletting and purges
Science in an Age of Optimism
– Surgery
• Antiseptics during operations dramatically lowered
the risk of infection from the operation
• They washed their hands, worked in relatively
sterile environments, wore white surgical gowns,
and rubber gloves to lessen the risks of infection
– Nursing
• Nurses often had the most direct contact with
sufferers and the wounded
• Florence Nightingale stressed cleanliness, fresh
air, and discipline
Chapter 21
• As writers and artists more closely
observed the contemporary world, their
works reflected the realities of urban life
and science.
• Realism and Naturalism: The Details of Social
Life
Culture: Accepting the Modern
World
– Literature
• The rise of realistic and naturalistic literature
• Some popular artist of the time were: Eugene de Vogue, Gustave
Flaubert, Charles Dickens, Mary Ann Evans, Henrik Ibsen, Emile
Zola, Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoyevski
– Art
• Painters turned to realistic depictions of life on their canvases
• Impressionism: Celebrating Modern Life
– Monet
• In 1874 critics attacked the paintings at the exposition, particularly
one by Monet entitled Impression: Sunrise, for rejecting accepted
standards of good art
• He gained a public reputation for being both brilliant and unyielding,
and by 1890 he was recognized as France’s premier painter.
Claude Monet, Waterlilies, 1914
Impressionism
• In 1874, a group of young painters who had been denied the right to
show in the Salon of 1873 organized an independent exhibition of
their work.
• These artists, opposing academic doctrines and Romantic ideals,
turned instead to the portrayal of contemporary life.
• They sought to paint “impressions” of what the eye actually sees
rather then what the mind knows.
• They were dubbed Impressionists by a critic who objected to the
sketchy quality of their paintings.
• The Impressionists enthusiastically affirmed modern life. They saw
the beauty of the world as a gift and the forces of nature as aids to
human progress.
Impressionism
• Impressionism was strongest between 1870 and 1880.
• After 1880, it was Claude Monet who continued for more then forty
years to advance Impressionism’s original premise.
• Claude Monet grew up in Le Havre, France, where while in high
school developed a reputation for drawing caricatures.
• Fame was long in coming, however, Monet was over forty before his
paintings sold well enough to guarantee a living for himself and his
family.
John Peter Paul @ Versace’s House
Chapter 21
• Intellectuals, writers, and artists
undermined the optimism of the period by
injecting pessimism into their works and
emphasizing the irrational forces guiding
human behavior.
From Optimism to Uncertainty
• Everything is Relative
– Einstein
• A German who fled to America, assailed time-honored
concepts about the stability of matter and the nature of the
physical universe
• Theory of relativity – time, space, and motion were relative to
one another as well as to the observer
• Sex, Conflict, and the Unconscious
From Optimism to Uncertainty
– Freud an Psychoanalysis
• Viennese neurologist who concluded that nervous disorders
stemmed from psychological and physiological sources, and
he based his ideas on the words, experiences, and dreams
of troubled patients.
• He argued that much of human behavior was irrational,
unconscious, and instinctual, and conflict was a basic
condition of life
• Id – the source of our basic desires
• Superego – imposes socially acceptable standards of
behavior
• Ego – finds ways to satisfy both the demands of the id and
the superego
From Optimism to Uncertainty
• Fear and Social Disintegration
– Durkheim
• A founder of modern sociology argued that industrial society
was weakening the ties that connected people with one
another
• Disenchantment Sets In
– Nietzsche
• German philosopher who thought reason could not solve
human problems, and he believed in “will’, which in his view
enabled people to survive and the strongest among them to
achieve power.
• Thought that Christianity stood in the way of a better human
society
From Optimism to Uncertainty
– Bergson
• Questioned the limits of rational and scientific thinking, and argued
that truth is best grasped through intuition and unconscious feelings
rather than reason
• Art Turns Inward
– Expressionism
• Their work grew more pessimistic and critical of middle-class life
• “Art for art’s sake”
– Music
• The Russian composer Igor Stravinsky led The Rite of Spring on
May 29,1913 in Paris.
• Upon hearing the music, the audience rose in outrage, fights broke
out and many listeners stormed from the theater after complaining
loudly.
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Why did Napoleon III decide to reconstruct the Parisian landscape?
What improvements were made to European cities in this period?
City People
How did the lifestyles of the urban elite and middle class differ?
Question
What opportunities outside theCritical
home were
open to middle-class women?
What values did the middle class embrace and promote?
What kinds of occupations were open to the lower-middle class?
What job opportunities were open to working-class women?
How did the middle class feel about the working-class and the poor?
Sports and Leisure in the Cities
What character values were sports thought to inculcate?
What leisure activities did people with means enjoy? How did those activities compare with
the ones available to workers?
Life Private: Together and Alone at Home
How did people view the home and family? What was a woman's place within the home and
family?
How did some women challenge the domestic role of the middle-class woman?
How did sexual realities conflict with Victorian morality?
What types of psychic stresses did people suffer during this period? How did they cope with
those stresses?
Science in an Age of Optimism
What was Darwin's theory about the origins of species? How original were his ideas?
How did Social Darwinists apply Darwin's thesis?
How did religious groups react to Darwin's ideas?
How were scientific techniques and principles applied to disciplines other than the natural
sciences?
The New Urban Landscape
Why did Napoleon III decide to reconstruct the Parisian
landscape?
What improvements were made to European cities in this
period?
City People
How did the lifestyles of the urban elite and
middle class differ?
What opportunities outside the home were
open to middle-class women?
What values did the middle class embrace
and promote?
What kinds of occupations were open to
the lower-middle class?
What job opportunities were open to
working-class women?
How did the middle class feel about the
working-class and the poor?
Sports and Leisure in the Cities
What character values were sports thought
to inculcate?
What leisure activities did people with
means enjoy? How did those activities
compare with the ones available to
workers?
Life Private: Together and Alone at
Home
How did people view the home and family?
What was a woman's place within the
home and family?
How did some women challenge the
domestic role of the middle-class woman?
How did sexual realities conflict with
Victorian morality?
What types of psychic stresses did people
suffer during this period? How did they
cope with those stresses?
Science in an Age of Optimism
What was Darwin's theory about the origins
of species? How original were his ideas?
How did Social Darwinists apply Darwin's
thesis?
How did religious groups react to Darwin's
ideas?
How were scientific techniques and
principles applied to disciplines other than
the natural sciences?