Practice Schedules
Chapter 9
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True or False?
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Long term retention of a skill is best achieved by practicing a
motor skill repeatedly before moving to a different version of
the task or a different task altogether.
The effectiveness of a training program shouldn’t be
measured by the speed of acquisition or the level of
performance reached at the end of practice
opportunities, but by the learner’s performance in realworld settings that are the reason for the training.
How should practice be structured?

Determining the type of practice structure that
promotes development of the individual’s
capacity to produce a variety of actions from
the same movement class is a key issue for
movement practitioners
–
Ie. Throwing
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Throwing a ball at different speeds to different locations
Throwing different types of objects into a trash can
Throwing darts to different areas of a target
Constant vs. Variable Practice

Constant practice
–
Practice schedule where a single variation of a given task is
practiced repeatedly (in the same context)


Throw the same object the same distance to the same target
Variable practice
–
Practice schedule where multiple variations of a given task are
practiced (changes in the context)

Throw different objects from different distances to different targets
Benefits of Practice Variability

Learners develop competence in altering the
parameters for different dimensions of an action
–
To throw 20 feet, 40 feet or 60 feet, the GMP would be the
same
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BUT, the parameters for overall force would be different
If the performer uses the wrong parameters for force the
throw would be too long or too short
Skilled performers select the correct parameter use to meet
the demands of the task
Benefits of Practice Variability

Learners are better able to perform novel
versions of a movement
–
Learners not only learn to perform specific versions
of a movement practiced, but also develop a
general capability of producing many different
variations of a class of movements

Practice throwing different balls to different types of targets
from different distances
–
When a new distance and target not practiced is presented,
the learner can successfully perform the novel task
Guidelines to Vary Practice
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Closed Skills
–
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Constant regulatory conditions, variable nonregulatory conditions
Open skills and closed skills with inter-trial
variability
–
Variable regulatory and non-regulatory conditions
When to Implement Variable Practice
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Use constant practice during initial stage of
learning
–
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Facilitates the learner’s development of a basic
movement pattern
Once learner has acquired the basic movement
pattern, variable practice should be introduced.
–
–
Superior for learning
Enhances the adaptability of movement production

New versions of a task are performed more effectively
What do you think?

A young person is thinking about applying for a
job as a postal employee. The job requires
workers to lift packages from a moving
conveyor belt and toss them into bins situated
in various locations around the conveyor. How
might the person practice this task to improve
his chances of getting the job?
Organizing Variable Practice
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One way to solve this practice schedule
problem is to understand the concept of
contextual interference
Contextual interference results from practicing
various skills within the same session of
practice
Contextual Interference
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Interference results from switching from one skill to
another or changing the context in which a task is
practiced from trial to trial
–
Intertask variations: dribbling, free throws, passing
–
intratask variations: helping a person use a fork to eat peas, lettuce,
spaghetti, chicken
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High contextual interference leads to poorer
performance during acquisition BUT enhances learning
Blocked Practice
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One variation of a skill is practiced repeatedly
before practice attempts are given on another
variation
–
Creates low contextual interference
–
Should be used initially until learner gets the idea of
the movement
Random Practice

Multiple task variations are performed in a
random order
–
Creates high contextual interference
–
Use once learners have acquired some degree of
proficiency
Repeated Blocked Practice

E.g. 5 successive shots at each of the 4
positions repeating the rotation twice
–
Creates moderate levels of contextual interference
–
Combines the advantages of both blocked and
random practice
Blocked vs. Repeated Blocked vs.
Random
Blocked
practice
Pass x 20
Slap Shot x 20
Wrist shot x 20
Repeated
blocked
practice
Pass x 5
Slap shot x 5
Wrist shot x 5
Random
practice
Pass, Slap shot, Wrist shot, Slap shot, Pass, Wrist shot, Pass, Slap shot,
Pass, Wrist shot, Slap shot, Wrist shot, Pass, Wrist shot, Slap shot, Pass,
Slap shot, Pass, Wrist shot, Slap shot, Wrist shot, Slap shot, Pass, Wrist
shot, Slap Shot, Wrist shot, Pass, Slap shot, Pass, Wrist shot, Pass, Slap
shot, Pass, Wrist shot, Slap shot, Wrist shot, Slap shot, Pass, Slap shot,
Wrist shot, Pass, Wrist shot, Slap shot, Wrist shot, Slap shot, Pass, Wrist
shot, Pass, Slap shot, Wrist shot, slap shot, Pass, Wrist shot, Pass, Slap
shot, Pass Wrist shot, Pass, Wrist shot, Slap shot
x4
Why Does The Contextual
Interference Effect Occur?
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Idea #1: Elaboration hypothesis
– Random practice engages one in more
cognitive strategies
– Performer retains all the skill variations in
working memory
– Performer develops a memory representation
of a skill that can be accessed during a test
Why Does The Contextual Interference Effect Occur?

Idea #2: Action plan reconstruction hypothesis
– Random practice requires performer to
reconstruct an action plan for each practice
trial
– Performer engages in more problem-solving
– Better retention performance
What Are The Limits Of The
Contextual Interference Effect?
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Learning characteristics may limit the effect
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Age

–
High amounts of contextual interference in children do not
enhance learning (blocked may be better)
Skill level
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Students with low skills may have better retention in low
amount of contextual interference (blocked may be better)
Limits
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Skills with different motor programs require
more cognitive involvement= greater
interference & enhanced learning
However, in applied situations, intratask
variations have been shown to elicit contextual
interference
Practical Application

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For a skill of your choice, establish a variable
practice schedule for closed skills and open
skills.
For a skill of your choice, establish contextual
interference for a novice learner; for a skilled
learner.
Time across practice sessions
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Random, repeated block, and block practice
deals with time within a practice session

How about the duration and frequency of
practice sessions across days, weeks,
months?
Massed vs. Distributed Practice
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Massed practice
–
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Amount of time allocated to rest between sessions
or practice attempts is comparatively less than the
time that the learner is engaged in practice
Distributed practice
–
Rest component between sessions or practice
attempts is equal to or greater than the practice
component
Question?

A team practices for 3 hours, has an hour off,
then practices for 2 hours. Is this an example
of massed or distributed practice?
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A patient receives therapy for 1 hour every day
during a hospital stay. Is this an example of
massed or distributed practice?
Practical Implications
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Use distributed practice for:
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Skills that are novel or complex
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Continuous tasks
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Tasks with high-energy requirements
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Tasks that involve some degree of risk
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Learners who lack physical conditioning
Practical Implications Cont.
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Use massed practice for:
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Discrete skills
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Learners who have acquired basic skills
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Learners who are highly motivated
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Learners who are in good physical condition
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Learners who have longer attention spans
Benefits
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Distributed practice seems to benefit learning.
Why?
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More frequent repetition
Less fatigue
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Less incorrect movement
Lower potential of injury
Massed practice may improve physical
conditioning for more advanced learners
Maximizing Time on Task
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Rest Intervals: change muscle groups, use C.I.
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Equipment substitutions: gather equipment for all, make
equipment appropriate for developmental level of user
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Drill design: active participation by all; avoid elimination; random
practice enhances learning
–
Small groups
Practical Application

Using a sport or rehab activity of your choice,
generate a list of possible alternatives that
could be used when an insufficient amount of
equipment is available.